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A  MEMORIAL 

OF 

ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN 

His  Life  and  Writings 


EDITED  BY 

CONDE  B.  FALLEN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 


NEW  YORK 

ENCYCLOPEDIA    PRESS,  Inc. 
23  EAST  FORTY-FIRST  STREET 


9^^-  73 


Copyright,  jgi6, 
The  Encyclopedia  Press,  Inc. 


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THIS  volume  is  for  a  testimonial  of  the  high  esteem  and 
admiration  in  which  the  late  Andrew  J.  Shipman  was  held 
by  his  friends,  whose  names  are  herein  inscribed.  It  is  also,  in 
a  measure,  the  perpetuation  of  some  of  his  many  achievements 
in  numerous  fields  of  activity,  as  well  as  an  inadequate  though 
affectionate  tribute  to  his  virtues  as  a  citizen  and  a  church- 
man, whose  thought,  whose  word  and  whose  deed  were  always 
in  perfect  accord  with  the  high  ideal  of  life  which  he  cherished 
so  ardently  and  exemplified  so  nobly  throughout  his  career. 


The  editor  wishes  to  express  his  thanks  to  the  pub- 
lishers of  "The  Catholic  Encyclopedia"  (Moscow,  Glagolitic, 
Iconostasis,  Hungarian  Catholics  in  America,  Slavs  in  America, 
Slavonic  Language  and  Liturgy,  Greek  Catholics  in  America, 
Rites  in  the  United  States,  Raskolniks) ;  "The  Catholic  World" 
(Spain  of  To-Day,  Recent  Impressions  of  Spain,  McClure's, 
Archer  and  Ferrer);  "America"  (How  Ferrer  Was  Tried, 
Latest  Tactics  as  to  Spain,  The  Poles  in  the  United  States) ; 
"The  Columbiad"  (A  Vision  of  American  Citizenship,  Stretch- 
ing the  Constitution,  The  Catholic  Part  in  Civic  Progress, 
Cardinal  Raphael  Merry  del  Val)  ;  "McClure's  Magazine"  (An 
American  Catholic's  Review  of  the  Ferrer  Case) ;  "The  Mes- 
senger" (Our  Italian  Greek  Catholics)  for  permission  to  re- 
print articles  of  Mr.  Shipman's  originally  appearing  in  their 
respective  publications. 


CONTENTS 

PoRTRALT  OF  Andrew  Jackson  Shipman  ....     FroYitisptece 

FACE 

List  of  Subscribers ^" 

Resolutions  

Biographical    Sketch '^^^ 

Spain  of  To-day 

Recent  Impressions  of  Spain ^7 

An  American  Catholic's  View  of  the  Ferrer  Case    ...  32 

McClure's,   Archer  and  Ferrer 47 

The  Latest  Tactics  as  to  Spain 66 

The  Situation  in   Portugal 7i 

vIm migration   to  the  United   States ^3 

v/The  Poles  in  the  United  States loi 

Our  Italian  Greek  Catholics ^^ 

v<!:atholics  of  the  Eastern  Rites  in  the  United  States      .        .  121 

Moscow ^^ 

Glagolitic ^^ 

iconostasis ^^^ 

^^ungarian  Catholics  in  America ^55 

>^LAvs  IN   America ^"^ 

Slavonic  Language  and  Liturgy 182 

Greek  Catholics  in  America i^ 

Rites  in  the  United  States ^^3 

Raskolniks •  ^40 

v^t^rvic  Integrity ^49 

yh  Vision  of  American  Citizenship        ......  255 

Stretching  the  Constitution ^^^ 

vThe  Catholic  Part  in  Civic  Progress V^ 

Roman    Catholicism ^°^ 

The  Church  and  Art •        .297 

Cardinal  Raphael  Merry  del  Val 305 

Education  and  Religion •        •        •  3i9 

Manners    Maketh    Man ^^7 

Women  in  Science ^^^ 

Address  to  Graduates  of  the  College  of  New  Rochelle,  191  i     .  339 

Address  to  the  Graduates  of  Georgetown  University,  1911        .  348 

The  Proposed  Catholic  Association 355 


SUBSCRIBERS  TO 
THE  MEMORIAL  OF  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN 

Adams,  T.  Albeus New  York,  N.  Y. 

Adikes,  John Jamaica,  N.  Y. 

Adrian,  J.  M New  York,  N.  Y. 

Agar,  John  G New  York.  N.  Y. 

Alexander,  C.  B New  York,  N.  Y. 

Amberg,  John  Ward Chicago,  III. 

Amy,  L.  H New  York,  N.  Y. 

Anderton,  Stephen  Philbin New  York,  N.  Y. 

Arkell,  Mrs.  Louisana  Grigsby New  York,  N.  Y. 

Arnold,  Edward  A New  York,  N.  Y. 

August,  Bro.  Henry Pocantico  Hills,  N.  Y. 

Avery,   Brainard New  York,  N.  Y. 

Bancroft,  Edgar  A Chicago,  III. 

Barrettt,  Edmund  E New  York,  N.  Y. 

Barron,  Rev.  James,  c.  ss.  r Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Beller,  William  F New  York,  N.  Y. 

Bennett,  Wm.  H Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Benziger  Brothers •  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Benziger,  Louis  G Montclair,  N.  J. 

Benziger,  Nicholas  C Summit,  N.  J. 

Bernard,  Very  Rev.  Father New  York,  N.  Y. 

Berri,  William Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Bisbee  Council  K.  C Bisbee,  Ariz. 

Blake,  Edward  Perry New  York,  N.  Y. 

Blandford,  Joseph  H.,  Jr Brandywine,  Md. 

Blandy,  Charles New  York,  N.  Y. 

Blaznik,  Rev.  Aloysius  Leo. Haverstraw,  N.  Y. 

Bodfish,  William:  A Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Brackett,  Edgar  T .Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y. 

Brann,  Rt.  Rev.  Henry  A.,  d.d New  York,  N.  Y. 

Britt,  T.  Louis  A New  York,  N.  Y. 

Broderick,  Daniel  I Catonsville,  Md. 


vu 


viii  SUBSCRIBERS 

Brophy,  W.  H BisBEE,  Ariz. 

Brozys,  Rev.  V.  T i Mt,  Carmel,  Pa. 

Burke,  Martin  M. Shenandoah,  Pa. 

Burr,  William  P New  York,  N.  Y. 

Butler,  William , New  York,  N.  Y. 

Byrne,  James New  York,  N.  Y. 

Cahill,  John  Henry New  York,  N.  Y. 

Cahill,  Santiago  P. New  York,  N.  Y. 

Callaway,  Wm.  T Quogue,  N.  Y. 

Campbell,  Francis  P. ........  .< New  Bedford,  Mass. 

Canevin,  Rt.  Rev.  J.  F.  Regis Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Cannon,  Chas.  M New  York,  N.  Y. 

Carolan,  J.  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Carr,  Henry  P.. .Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Carton,  Harold  Jerome New  York,  N.  Y. 

Carton,  James  D.. Asbury  Park,  N.  J. 

Cassidy,  John  H Waterbury,  Ct. 

Catholic  Club  of  New  York  City New  York,  N.  Y. 

Chamberlain,  Mr.  &  Mrs.  Albert  S Hartford,  Ct. 

Chaplinsky,  Very  Rev.  Mgr.  Joseph.  .Perth  Amboy,  N.  J. 

Chidwick,  Rt.  Rev.  John  P.,  d.d Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

Clare,  William  F New  York,  N.  Y. 

Clearwater,  Judge  Alphonso  T .Kingston,  N.  Y. 

CoNATY,  Rev.  Bernard  S Pittsfield,  Mass. 

CoNBOY,  Martin New  York,  N.  Y. 

Condon,  Martin  J.. .Memphis,  Tenn. 

Connolly,  Very  Rev.  Mgr.  J.  N .New  York,  N.  Y. 

Conrad,  Rt.  Rev.  Frowin,  o.s.b Conception,  Mo, 

Cooke,  Abbot  S Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

CoYLE,  John  G.,  m.d New  York,  N.  Y. 

Creighton    University   Library.  . . ., Omaha,  Nebr. 

Crimmins,  John  D.. New  York,  N.  Y. 

Cruikshank,  Alfred  B New  York,  N.  Y. 

CsoPEY,  Very  Rev.  Nicholas Wilkesbarre,  Pa. 

Cunningham,  Francis  A Merchantville,  N.  J. 

Cunnion,  Frank  P ,. . . .  .New  York,  N.  Y. 

Cybulski,  Rev.  M ,. Sioux  City,  Iowa 

Daly,  Rev.  John  A Dorchester,  Mass. 

Daly,  Joseph  F New  York,  N.  Y. 


SUBSCRIBERS  ix 

Daly,  Michael  J Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Davey,  Rev.  J.  C,  s.j .Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Davison,  Clarence!  S .Tarrytown,  N.  Y. 

De  Courcy,  Chas.  a Lawrence,  Mass. 

Deitsch,  Mary  M Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

De  Lacy,  George  C .New  York,  N.  Y. 

Delahanty,  Daniel Pelham,  N.  Y. 

Delahunty,  John New  York,  N.  Y. 

Delany,  Rev.  Joseph  F New  York,  N.  Y. 

DEs  Garennes,  Jean  F.  P Flushing,  N.  Y. 

Devine,  Thomas  J Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Devoy,  John  W Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Deyo,  Israel  T Bingh amton,  N.  Y. 

DiNAND,  Rev.  Joseph,  s.j Worcester,  Mass. 

DoNLON,  Rev.  A.  J.,  s.j Washington,  D.  C. 

Donnelly,  James  F New  York.  N.  Y. 

DooLEY,  John  R New  York,  N.  Y. 

Dooley,   Michael  F Providence,  R.  I. 

Dooley,  William  J Boston,  Mass. 

Douglas,  Wm.  Harris New  York,  N.  Y. 

Dowhovych,  Very  Rev.  Waldimir Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

DowLiNG,  Rt.  Rev.  Austin Des  Moines,  Iowa 

DowLiNG,  Victor  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Downing,  Augustus  S Albany,  N.  Y. 

Dreier,  Katherine  S New  York,  N.  Y. 

Drennan,  Very  Rev.  M.  A Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Duffy,  Charles  H New  York,  N.  Y. 

Duffy,  John  H New  York,  N.  Y. 

DuRoss,  Charles  E New  York,  N.  Y. 

Edwards,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  John,  v.g New  York,  N.  Y. 

Eglin,  Geo.  A Kalona,  Iowa 

EvERs,  Very  Rev.  L.  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Faour,  Dominick  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Fargis,  Joseph  H New  York,  N.  Y. 

Farley,  His  Eminence  John  Cardinal.  .New  York,  N.  Y. 
Farrell,  Very  Rev.  Herbert  F.,  v.f. .Far  Rockaway,  N.  Y. 

Farrelly,  Rt.  Rev.  John  P Cleveland,  Ohio 

Finegan,  Austin New  York,  N.  Y. 

FiNEGAN,  Thos.  E Albany,  N.  Y. 


X  SUBSCRIBERS 

FiTZPATRiCK,   James Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Flannelly,  Rev.  Jos.  F New  York,  N.  Y. 

Foley,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  M.  F Baltimore,  Md. 

Franklin,   Joseph Lehigh,  Ala. 

Frey,  a.  R New  York,  N.  Y. 

Frey,  Joseph New  York,  N.  Y. 

Furey,  John Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Fyans,  Cornelius  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Gannon,  Frank  S New  York,  N.  Y. 

Gannon,  Frank  S.,  Jr New  York,  N.  Y. 

Garver,  John  A New  York,  N.  Y. 

Gaughan,  Rev.  James  H Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Gennert,  Henry  G New  York,  N.  Y. 

George,   Abraham New  York,  N.  Y. 

Geringer,  E.J Chicago,  III. 

GiBBS,  Michael  P St.  Johns,  Newfoundland 

Gillespie,  George  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Glass,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  S.,  d.d Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

Glogowski,  Very  Rev.  George Erie,  Pa. 

GosTOMSKi,  Rev.  Francis  J.,  s.t.l Watervliet,  N.  Y. 

Grady,  Walter  L Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Gregg,  Rev.  Thomas  F New  York,  N.  Y. 

Griffin,  Very  Rev.  Wm.  E.  F Winona,  Minn. 

Grossman,  Moses  H New  York,  N.  Y. 

Guthrie,  William  D New  York,  N.  Y. 

Haggerty,  Louis  C New  York,  N.  Y. 

Haire,  Andrew  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Halloran,  Miss  Lizzie Nashville,  Tenn. 

Hamilton,  George  E Washington,  D.  C. 

Hanley,  Rev.  Joseph,  s.j Baltimore,  Md. 

Hanselman,  Very  Rev.  Joseph  F.,  s.j Woodstock,  Md. 

Hanulya,  Very  Rev.  Joseph Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Harkins,  Rt.  Rev.  Matthew Providence,  R.  I. 

Harris,  Charles  N New  York,  N.  Y. 

Hayes,  Cady Lanesboro,  Minn. 

Hayes,  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  J.,  d.d New  York,  N.  Y. 

Healy,  James  A New  York,  N.  Y. 

Heide,  Henry New  York,  N.  Y. 

Hendrick,  Peter  A New  York,  N.  Y. 


SUBSCRIBERS  xi 

Herbermann,  Chas.  G.,  ph.d.,  ll.d New  York,  N.  Y. 

Herder,  B St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Herrick,  John  R. Ottumwa,  Iowa 

Heuser,  Rev.  Herman  J Overbrook,  Pa. 

HicKEY,  Rev.  David  J Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

HiCKEY,  Rev.  John  F Cincinnati,  Ohio 

HiCKEY,  Rev.  Wm.  D Dayton,  Ohio 

Him  MEL,  Rev.  Joseph,  s.j So.  Norwalk,  Ct. 

Hine,  Charles  DeLano Vienna,  Va. 

Hirst,  Anthony  A Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Hirst  Library  and  Reading  Room Washington,  D.  C. 

HOENNINGER,    JOHN    C NeW    YoRK,    N.    Y. 

Horsey,   Outerbridge New  York,  N.  Y. 

Hotchkiss,  Howard  P New  Haven,  Ct. 

HowLETT,  M.  P Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Hume,  Nelson New  Milford,  Ct. 

Hurley,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Edw.  F Lexington,  Mass. 

Hynes,  Thomas  W Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Ignatius,  Mother  M New  Rochelle,  N.  Y. 

Jackson,  Frederick  S New  York,  N.  Y. 

Jenks,  Jeremiah  W New  York,  N.  Y. 

Joyce,  Henry  L New  York,  N.  Y. 

Keane,  Most  Rev.  John  J Dubuque,  Iowa 

Keany,  Joseph  F .Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Kearney,  Robt.  S New  York,  N.  Y. 

Keating,  Henry Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Keilty,  M.J Geneva,  N.  Y. 

Kellogg,  Walter  Guest Ogdensburg,  N.  Y. 

Kelly,  Edward  Jeremiah E.  Orange,  N.  J. 

Kenedy,   Arthur New  York,  N.  Y. 

Kent,  Mrs.  Percy New  York,  N.  Y. 

Kernan,  Joseph  A New  York,  N.  Y. 

Kerrigan,  Joseph  P Cynwyd,  Pa. 

Kiernan,  Patrick Maywood,  N.  J. 

King,  Percy  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Kisilowsky,  Rev.  Filemon Ansonia,  Ct. 

Knappek,  Rev.   Paul .Newark,  N.  J. 

Kober,  Dr.  George  Martin Washington,  D.  C. 


xii  SUBSCRIBERS 

KuBEK,  Rev.  Emil  A Mahanoy  City,  Pa. 

Kuziv,  Rev.  Michael Northampton,  Pa. 

Langan,  Jno.   C Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Lavelle,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  M.  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Law^ler,  Joseph  A Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Lawyer,  Florence  Shipman Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

Lawyer,  Marion  Shipman Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

Leckie,  a.  E.  L Washington,  D.  C. 

Lee,  Thomas  Zanzlaur Providence,  R.  L 

Leigo,  Kathryn  McGuckin Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Lennon,  Maurice  F Joliet,  III. 

Lesley,  Eulalia  W Haverford,  Pa. 

Library  of  St.  Joseph's  Convent Brentwood,  N.  Y. 

Lilly,  Joseph  T Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

LisicKY,  Rev.  Paul  J Lansford,  Pa. 

Lisiecki,  Frank  F New  York,  N.  Y. 

Lord,  Chester  S Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Louis,  Mother  M Brentwood,  N.  Y. 

Low,    Seth Bedford  Hills,  N.  Y. 

Loyola  College  Library Baltimore,  Md. 

Loyola  School New  York,  N.  Y. 

Lynch,  John  H .  .New  York,  N.  Y. 

McAlenney,  Paul  Francis Hartford,  Ct. 

McAvoy,  Thomas  F New  York,  N.  Y. 

McCabe,  Rev.  F.  X.,  cm Chicago,  III. 

McCarthy,  Florence  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

McCuE,  Rev.  Edward  J , New  York,  N.  Y. 

McDevitt,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Philip  R Philadelphia,  Pa. 

MacDonald,  a.  a.,  m.d Boston,  Mass. 

McDonogh,  M.  F Philadelphia,  Pa. 

McFarlan,  Walter  Sardo Washington,  D.  C. 

McGean,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  J.  H New  York,  N.  Y. 

McGoldrick,  Edward  J , New  York,  N.  Y. 

McGoLRiCK,  Rt.  Rev.  James Duluth,  Minn. 

McGuire,  Edward  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

McGuiRE,  Wm.  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

McHugh,  Joseph  P New  York,  N.  Y. 

McIntyre,  Rev.  James  T New  York,  N.  Y. 

McKechnie,  W.  G Springfield,  Mass. 


SUBSCRIBERS  xiii 

McKenna,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Edw New  York,  N.  Y. 

McKenna,   James  A.. New  York,  N.  Y. 

Mackenzie,  Mrs.  Jane New  York,  N.  Y. 

McMahon,  Rev.  Jos.  H.,  ph.d New  York,  N.  Y. 

McManus,  Edward  F New  York,  N.  Y. 

McNaboe,  James   F New  York,  N.  Y. 

McNaboe,  Peter  V New  York,  N.  Y. 

McParlan,  Edward  C.  m.d New  York,  N.  Y. 

McPartland,  John  E New  Haven,  Ct. 

McQuiLLEN,  Paul  Wm Passaic,  N.  J. 

Magrath,  Patrick  F Binghamton,  N.  Y. 

Maloney,  Marquis  Martin Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Malville,  Neptune  J San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Mandeville,  H.  C Elmira,  N.  Y. 

Mangan,  Elizabeth . Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Manley,  Capt.  Alfred London,  Ontario 

Markham,  Francis  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Marshall,  Louis New  York,  N.  Y. 

Mason,  Jarvis  W New  York,  N.  Y. 

Mastick,  Seabury  C New  York,  N.  Y. 

Menahan,  p.  J Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Messmer,  Most  Rev.  Sebastian,  d.  d Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Moakley,  William  P New  York,  N.  Y. 

Molloy,  Joseph  A New  York,  N.  Y. 

Monaghan,  Hugh  L,  ll.b Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Mooney,  Edmund  L New  York,  N.  Y. 

Mooney,  Henry  W New  York,  N.  Y. 

Mooney,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Joseph New  York,  N.  Y. 

Mooney,  Wm.  L Hartford,  Ct. 

Moot,    Adelbert Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Moran,  James,  m.  d New  York,  N.  Y. 

Mount  Saint  Vincent,  College  of New  York,  N.  Y. 

Muldoon,  Rt.  Rev.  P.  J Rockford,  III. 

Mullen,  John  J West  Springfield,  Mass. 

Mulligan,  James  R Newark,  N.  J. 

Murphy,  Francis  P New  York,  N.  Y. 

Murphy,  John  H New  York,  N.  Y. 

Murphy,    Nora Ypsilanti,  Mich. 

Murphy,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  W.  G New  York,  N.  Y. 

Murray,  Archibald,  m.  d New  York,  N.  Y. 


xiv  SUBSCRIBERS 

Murray,  Chas New  York,  N.  Y. 

Murray,  Thomas  Edward New  York,  N.  Y. 

Newman,  James  J Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Nolan,  James  C St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Noonan,  Rev.  Hebert  C,  s.  j Milwaukee,  Wis. 

NussA,  Rafael  Lopez,  m.  d Ponce,  Porto  Rico 

O'Brien,  John  E New  York,  N.  Y. 

O'Brien,  Michael  C,  m.  d,  . New  York,  N.  Y. 

O'Connor,  John  P St.  Paul,  Minn. 

O'Donnell,  Rev.  Richard Alderbrook,  N.  Y. 

O'DoNovAN,    Charles. Baltimore,  Md. 

O'DwYER,  John Toledo,  Ohio 

Ohligschlager,  Jacob  B Louisville,  Ky. 

O'Keefe,  John Philadelphia,  Pa. 

O'Neill,  Rev.  John  J Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

O'Neill,  Wm.  M.  A.,  ll.b Highland  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Orr,  William  C New  York,  N.  Y. 

Orun,  Rev.  Zachary Nanticoke,  Pa. 

O'Shaughnessy,  E.  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Pace,  Rev.  E.  A Washington,  D.  C. 

Pajkowski,  Rev.  Jos.  S Chicago.  III. 

Palen-Klar,  Adolphe  J Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Pallen,  Conde  B New  York,  N.  Y. 

Pavlak,  Rev.  Alexander Boston,  Mass. 

Payne,  John   Carroll Atlanta,  Ga. 

Pelletier,  J.  C Boston,  Mass. 

Pendergast,  J.  Lynch New  York,  N.  Y. 

Phelan,  Rev.  Thomas  P Brewster,  N.  Y. 

Philbin,  Hon.  Eugene  A New  York,  N.  Y. 

Philip,   Joseph , Dundee,  Scotland 

Phillips,   Samuel  K Beacon,  N.  Y. 

PiTAss,  Rev.  Alex.,  ph.d.,  d.  d Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Plaznik,  Rev.  John Joliet,  III. 

Poniatishin,   Rev.   Peter Newark,  N.  J. 

Power,  John  M Helena,  Mont. 

Preisser,  Rev.  Stephen  Anthony Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Prendergast,   William   A New  York,  N.  Y. 

Proffitt,  Rev.  Chas.  C Garnerville,  N.  Y. 


SUBSCRIBERS  xv 

Prystay,  Rev.  Alex Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

PuLLEYN,  John  Joseph New  York,  N.  Y. 

QuiNLAN,  Francis  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Raczynski,   Rev.   A Cicero,  III. 

Rainer,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  J.,  v.  g St.  Francis,  Wis. 

Rauh,  Joseph  A New  Rochelle,  N.  Y. 

Redemptorist  Fathers,  St.  Wenceslaus'  Rectory, 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Reiley,  Robert  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Reilly,  Frederick  J New  York,  N.  Y. 

Reilly,  Richard  M Lancaster,  Pa. 

Religious  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary Tarrytown,  N.  Y. 

RiDDER,  Henry New  York,  N.  Y. 

RiGGS,  Thomas  L New  London,  Ct. 

Rooney,  John  C New  York,  N.  Y. 

Rooney,  John  Jerome New  York,  N.  Y. 

RowE,  Charles  T.  B New  York,  N.  Y. 

RuDULPH,  Zebulon  Thomas Birmingham,  Ala. 

Russell,  Chas.  T New  York,  N.  Y. 

Ruth,  Anna  Frances : .  .  S.  Pasadena,  Cal. 

Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  Church  of  St.  George 

New  York,  N.  Y. 

Ryan,  John   D New  York,  N.  Y. 

Ryder,   Thomas  J Mexico,  D.  F. 

St.  Xavier  College Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Salamon,  Rev.  John  D Elizabeth,  N.  J. 

Schneider,  Fred  M Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Schrembs,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph Toledo,  Ohio 

ScHWEBACH,  Rt.  Rev.  Jas La  Crosse,  Wis. 

Scott,   Joseph Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Seitz,  Charles Goldfield,  Nev. 

Seoane,  Capt.  Consuelo  Andrew Fort  Bayard,  N.  M. 

Shahan,  Rt.  Rev.  Thos.  J Washington,  D.  C. 

Shallow,  Edward  B Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Sheahan,  Very  Rev.  J.  F Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 

Sheedy,  Dr.  Bryan  D New  York,  N.  Y. 

Shepard,  Mrs.  Finley  J Irvington,  N.  Y. 

Shields.  George  C Mansfield,  Mass. 


xvi  SUBSCRIBERS 

Shipman,  Carroll San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Shipman,  Mary  Priscilla Washington,  D.  C. 

Shipman,  May  P Washington,  D.  C. 

Sisters  of  Charity.  .  .Mt.  St.  Vincent-on-Hudson,  N.  Y. 

Sloane,  Chas.  W Sands  Point,  N.  Y. 

Smith,  Edward  N Watertown,  N.  Y. 

Smith,  Frank  W..  . . .  .u .New  York,  N,  Y. 

Smith,  Rev.  Joseph  F New  York,  N.  Y. 

Smith,  Walter  George Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Spalding,  Hughes Atlanta,  Ga. 

Spencer,  Nelson  S New  York,  N.  Y. 

Spillane,  Re\^  Edward,  s.  j .Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Stelle,  Peter  R New  York,  N.  Y. 

Sterniuk,  Rev.  Myron Detroit,  Mich. 

Stetson,  Eliz.  Carroll  Shipman Washington,  D.  C. 

Stevens,  Frank  L.. New  York,  N.  Y. 

Stoughton,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  C.  R New  York,  N.  Y. 

Strenski,  Rev.  Emil  F Jamaica,  N.  Y. 

Sullivan,  F.  W Duluth,  Minn. 

Synnott,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  John Hartford,  Ct. 

SzABo,  Rev.  John Toronto,  Ohio 

Tack,  Theodore  A Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Taintor,  F.  B New  York,  N.  Y. 

Tennant,  John  A New  York,  N.  Y. 

Thompson,  Mrs.  Campau Detroit,  Mich. 

Thornton,  Rev.  Thos.  A New  York,  N.  Y. 

Tierney,    Wm.    L Greenwich,  Ct. 

TiHEN,  Rt.  Rev.  J.  H Lincoln,  Nebr. 

ToBiN,  Chas.  J Albany,  N.  Y. 

Tobin,  Jos.  S San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Tooley,  Francis  Laurence,  d.  d.  s New  York,  N.  Y. 

Treacy,  Richard  S New  York,  N.  Y. 

Van  Antwerp,  Rev.  F.  J.,  ll.  d Detroit,  Mich. 

Vander  Veer,  A Albany,  N.  Y. 

Wakim,  Rev.  Francis New  York,  N.  Y. 

Wall,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Francis  H New  York,  N.  Y. 

Walsh,  Jas.  J.,  m.  d New  York,  N.  Y. 

Ward,  Cabot New  York,  N.  Y. 


SUBSCRIBERS  xvii 

Webber,  Charles  A Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Wehrle,  Rt.  Rev.  Vincent Bismarck,  N.  D. 

Welch,  Chas.  J Port  Washington,  N.  Y. 

Westwood,  Herman  J Fredonia,  N.  Y. 

Wielebinski,  Rev.  John  N Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

Willcox,  James  M Villa  Nova,  Pa. 

Williams,  Michael San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Wingerter,  Chas.  A.,  m.  d Wheeling,  W.  Va. 

Wolf,  Rt.  Rev.  Innocent,  o.  s.  b Atchison,  Kan. 

Wolfe,  P.  B Clinton,  Iowa 

Wood,  Frank  S Batavia,  N.  Y. 

WooDLocK,  Thomas  F Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y. 

Wren,  Peter  W Bridgeport,  Ct. 

Wynne,  Rev.  John  J.,  s.  j New  York,  N.  Y. 

Yawman,  Philip  H Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Zeedick,  Peter  Ivan,  m.  d Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


RESOLUTIONS  ON 

THE  DEATH  OF 

ANDREW  JACKSON  SHIPMAN 


RESOLUTIONS 

St.    George's    Ruthenian    Greek    Catholic    Benevolent 

Association 

At  a  meeting  of  the  St.  George  Ruthenian  Greek  CathoHc 
Benevolent  Association,  held  on  November  6,  at  28  East 
Seventh  Street,  New  York  City,  resolutions  in  memory  of  the 
late  ANDREW  JACKSON  SHIPMAN  were  unanimously 
adopted.  Mr.  Shipman  had  been  for  four  years  the  only 
honorary  member  of  the  association — a  signal  mark  of  friend- 
ship and  grateful  esteem  on  the  part  of  the  Greek-Ruthenians 
toward  a  benefactor  whose  services  in  behalf  of  the  CathoHcs 
of  the  Uniat  churches  in  this  country  cannot  be  overestimated. 

That  the  Greek  Catholics  feel  keenly  the  loss  they  have 
sustained  in  Mr.  Shipman's  death,  and  cherish  gratefully 
the  memory  of  the  brilliant  services  he  performed  for  their 
welfare  and  prosperity,  the  memorial  eloquently  sets  forth. 
Tribute  is  paid  to  the  upright  life  and  noble  citizenship  of  the 
deceased,  which  are  pronounced  an  inspiration  to  his  fellows. 

The  tribute  closed  with  an  expression  of  sincere  sympathy 
and  condolence  with  Mr.  Shipman's  sorrowing  family,  and 
bears  the  following  signatures :  The  Rev.  N.  Pidhorecki,  presi- 
dent;  B.  Hociak,  O.  Sawicki,  M.  Sterka,  Petro  Palega,  N. 
Wisciak. 


XXI 


xxii  RESOLUTIONS 


MoHANSic  State  Hospital 

We,  the  Board  of  Managers  of  the  Mohansic  State  Hos- 
pital, in  annual  meeting  assembled,  to  record  how  highly  we 
valued  the  life :  how  deeply  we  deplore  the  death  of  our 
honored  and  beloved  president,  do  resolve : 

Whereas,  from  the  inception  of  this  Board 

ANDREW  JACKSON  SHIPMAN 

has  been  its  president  and  although  this  was  but  one  of  the 
many  disinterested  public  burdens  that  he  assumed,  he  de- 
voted without  stint  his  time,  his  great  talents  and  his  wide 
learning  to   its  affairs. 

Unattended  by  the  acclaim  of  the  multitude  he  served ! 

The  recipient  of  no  personal  reward  from  the  vast  interests 
for  which  he  labored,  he  spent  with  generous  prodigality  in 
the  public  service  a  large  measure  of  the  life  allotted  to  him. 
He  was  a  man  upon  whom  the  state  leaned  and  he  became 
a  pillar  of  her  strength,  and 

Whereas,  his  kindly,  courteous  and  noble  character  has 
endeared  him  to  us  and  to  all  with  whom  he  was  associated. 

Resolved,  that  in  his  death,  which  occurred  on  October 
17th,  1 91 5,  his  country  and  his  state  lost  a  model  citizen,  a 
generous  patriot  and  we  and  all  his  associates  a  loved  and 
honored  friend.  To  his  immediate  family  in  their  immeasur- 
able loss,  we  can  but  tender  our  deepest  sympathy. 

Resolved,  that  this  resolution  be  spread  upon  our  minutes 
and  a  copy  sent  to  his  family. 

A.  OuTRAM  Sherman, 

Secretary. 
Helen  Gould  Shepard  Mary  Flexner 

John  J.  Crennan  Seabury  C.  Mastick 

William  D,  Granger 


RESOLUTIONS  xxiii 

Georgetown  Alumni  Society  of  New  York 

By  the  death  of 

MR.  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN 

the 
Georgetown  Alumni  Society 
of  New  York  City 
has  lost  one  of  its  most  distinguished  and  zealous  members. 
His  ever  ready  service,  his  generous  co-operation  in  every- 
thing that  promoted  the  welfare  of  his  Alma  Mater  and  the 
Alumni  Society,  his  warm  friendship  for  his  fellow-alumni, 
and  his  generous  assistance  whenever  the  occasion  offered, 
not  only  endeared  him  to  all,  but  made  him  a  shining  example 
of  devotion  which  few  can  emulate  but  none  excel. 

His  generous  nature  led  him  to  give  his  time  and  talents 
without  stint  to  every  worthy  cause. 

The  distinguished  position  which  he  won  by  solid  merit  in 
his  profession,  his  notable  public  and  civic  services  which 
he  gave  freely  and  with  largess  in  more  than  one  direction,  his 
sturdy  and  uncompromising  love  of  truth  and  justice  as  a 
Publicist,  the  great  work  which  he  accompHshed  out  of  the 
fullness  of  his  charity  for  the  Catholics  of  the  Uniat  Churches 
in  the  United  States,  make  a  unique  and  distinguished  record 
which  is  a  source  of  just  pride  and  gratification  to  his  fellow- 
alumni. 

While  his   loss   in  death  is   the  cause  of  deep  grief,   his 

illustrious  example  in  life  is  a  source  of  great  consolation. 

To  his  afflicted  family  the 

New  York  Alumni  Society 

extends  its  profoundest  sympathy. 

J.  Lynch  Prendergast, 

President. 
James  S.  McDonogh, 

Secretary. 


xxiv  RESOLUTIONS 

The  Encyclopedia   Press,   Inc. 

At    a    meeting    of    the 

Board  of  Directors 

of   the 

Encyclopedia  Press,  Inc. 

held    November,    191 5,    the    following    resolution    was    upon 

motion  unanimously  adopted. 

In  the  death  of 

MT^.  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN, 

a  Director  of  the   Encyclopedia   Press,    Inc.,  this   Company 

suffers  a  loss  which  can  be  no  more  estimated  than  the  grief 

of  his  fellow-Directors  can  be  expressed  in  words. 

Not  only  is  this  Company  deprived  of  his  most  valuable 
and  generous  services,  but  many  other  important  interests, 
both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  suffer  likewise. 

The  readiness,  ability  and  wisdom  with  which  he  pro- 
moted the  enterprise  of  publishing  "The  Catholic  Encyclopedia" 
are  entitled  to  the  unceasing  gratitude,  not  only  of  those  with 
whom  he  co-operated  in  the  production  of  the  work,  but  of 
all  who  in  any  way  derived  benefit  from  its  use.  His  name 
should   be   inseparably   connected   with   this   enterprise. 

The  Directors  of  this  Company  and  the  Editors  of  "The 
Catholic  Encyclopedia"  express  their  deepest  sympathy  with 
Mr.  Shipman's  Widow  and  Family. 

Conde  B.  Pallen, 
President. 
W.  C.  J.  Magee, 

Secretary. 
John  J.  Wynne 
Arthur  Kenedy 
Thomas  F.  Woodlock 
Eugene  A.  Philbin 
John  D.  Crimmins 
Chas.  W.  Sloane 
Thomas  J.  Shahan 
Edward  A.  Pace 


RESOLUTIONS  xxv 

Xavier  Alumni  Society 
Cor  unum  et  anima  una 

At  a  Regular  Meeting  of  the 

Council  of  the 

Xavier  Alumni  Sodality 

of  the  City  of  New  York 

held   on   the    28th    day    of    November,    191 5,    the    following 

resolution  offered  by 

John  B.  Doyle 
was  unanimously  adopted : 
Whereas, 

ANDREW  JACKSON  SHIPMAN 

has  passed  away,  and 

Whereas,  during  the  years  of  his  life's  work  he  was  con- 
stant in  his  devotion  to  the 

Xavier  Alumni  Sodality 
as  Sodalist,  as  President  and  in  its  Council,  and — 

Whereas,  his  passing  is  a  loss  not  only  to  the  Sodality  but, 
in  its  deepest  significance,  to  the  Church  and  to  the  State,  for 
in  him  was  realized  the  noblest  ideal  of  a  Christian  gentle- 
man. With  a  personality  of  rare  simplicity  he  combined  the 
choicest  gifts  of  mind  and  heart;  his  remarkable  talents  and 
attainments  he  used  ungrudgingly  for  the  benefit  of  others 
and  to  make  our  Faith  better  understood;  he  pursued  the 
Law  as  a  vocation  of  honor  and  of  cherished  traditions;  he 
served  the  State  purely,  turning  from  praise  or  emolument ; 
he  ever  championed  the  Right  and  in  particular  the  Eternal 
Right  of  Christ's  Teaching,  and  by  his  stainless  character, 
his  respect  for  her  authority,  and  his  observance  of  her 
ordinances,  reflected  in  every  day  of  his  life  the  spirit  of  holy 
Mother  Church.     Therefore,  it  is 

Resolved,  that  this  be  adopted  as  the  unanimous  sentiment 
at  our  grief  and  that  it  be  spread  upon  the  minutes  of  the 
Council  of  the  Xavier  Alumni  Sodality.     And  it  is 

Further  Resolved,  that  a  copy  hereof  be  engrossed  and 
signed  by  the  President  and  the  Reverend  Moderator  and 
presented  to  the  wife  of  our  late  lamented  member  to  express 
in  some  measure  our  sorrow  and  sympathy. 

John  A.  Ryan, 

President. 
T.  J.  Campbell,  s.j. 

Moderator. 


xxvi  RESOLUTIONS 

Catholic  Club  of  New  York 

The  Catholic  Club  of  the  City  of  New  York  at  its 
regular  monthly  meeting  held  at  the  club  house  on  November 
nth,  1915,  unanimously  adopted  the  following  memorial  of 
MR.  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  and  directed  its  entry  on  the 
minutes. 

Andrew  J.  Shipman  died  at  his  home  in  this  City  on 
October  17th,  191 5.  He  had  been  a  member  of  this  Club 
for  more  than  sixteen  years.  He  served  as  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Managers  in  1908-9.  He  was  one  of  the  Vice- 
Presidents  in  1909-10-11. 

His  character  was  admirable.  His  intellect  was  of  the 
highest  order.  His  personality  was  charming.  He  was  a  man 
of  great  vigor  of  thought  and  of  loyalty  to  principle.  He 
joined  to  these  remarkable  qualities  an  industry  which  was 
probably  his  most  extraordinary  gift. 

In  all  his  official  duties  while  an  officer  and  manager  of  this 
club  he  illustrated  this  vigor,  loyalty  and  industry  so  well 
that  when  he  retired  in  191 1,  he  left  behind  him  a  reputa- 
tion for  efficiency  which  still  continues.  He  was  particularly 
zealous  in  all  matters  relating  to  learning  and  philosophy  and 
the  intellectual  life.  As  chairman  of  the  Library  Committee 
he  served  the  Club  with  signal  success. 

His  work  in  other  ways  is  known  to  every  one.  He  shed 
lustre  on  our  membership  by  his  achievements.  Whether  at 
work  in  his  profession  of  the  law  or  in  public  affairs  or  in 
the  special  field  to  which  he  devoted  so  much  of  both  his 
mind  and  his  heart  in  his  later  years,  the  care  and  protection  of 
the  Uniat  Catholics  of  the  Oriental  rites ;  the  fame  of  his 
deeds  was  received  by  his  fellow  members  of  the  Catholic 
Club  with  affectionate  satisfaction. 

He  did  excellent  work  in  the  Constitutional  Convention 
of  1915.  Indeed  it  was  his  zeal  and  untiring  devotion  to 
his  duties  as  a  delegate  which  broke  down  his  vigorous  health 
and  brought  about  his  untimely  death. 

In  the  midst  of  these  great  labors  he  remained  one  of 
the  gentlest  of  men.  He  endeared  himself  to  all  by  his  genial 
disposition  and  his  unselfishness.  He  was  one  of  our  most 
beloved  members  and  his  passing  leaves  a  real  gap  among  us. 

God  in  His  Divine  Providence  has  removed  him  in  the 
flower  of  his  activity  and  success.  We  are  sure  that  he  has 
passed  to  the  great  reward  of  His  good  and  faithful  servant. 


RESOLUTIONS  xxvii 


Catholic  Theatre  Movement 

The  Executive  Board  of  the  Catholic  Theatre  Movement 
at  its  regular  monthly  meeting  held  at  the  residence  of 
Right  Reverend  Monsignor  Lavelle,  460  Madison  Avenue,  on 
February  7th,  1916,  unanimously  adopted  the  following  me- 
morial of  MR.  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  and  directed  its  entry 
on   the  minutes. 

Andrew  J.  Shipman  had  a  charming  personality,  an  in- 
tellect of  the  highest  order,  a  character  of  sterling  quality. 
He  gave  all  these  things  to  the  service  of  the  Catholic 
Theatre  Movement,  joined  with  an  industry  which  was  re- 
markable. He  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  this  society  and 
helped  to  mark  out  the  lines  for  its  progress  and  to  find  out 
the  ways  for  its  development.  His  culture  and  knowledge 
of  books  and  men  helped  greatly  in  the  formation  of  the 
plans  for  the  beginnings  of  the  difficult  work  it  took  charge 
of.     He  continued  earnest  and  interested  until  his  untimely 

death. 

We  desire  to  record  here  our  sorrow  at  his  departure 
from  among  us  and  to  express  to  the  members  of  his 
family  our  deep  sympathy  in  their  bereavement. 

Austin  Finegan, 

Secretary. 


xxviii  ■      RESOLUTIONS 


The  Marquette  League 

Whereas,  The  Board  of  Directors  of  The  Marquette  League 
for  Indian  Welfare  have  learned  with  profound  regret  of 
the  death  of  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN,  for  five  years  one  of 
the  Vice-presidents  of  this  League.  He  actively  shared  in  the 
management  of  the  society  and  has  left  the  impress  of  his 
forceful  personality  on  all  its  activities  during  the  period  of 
his  connection  with  it.  The  loss  of  so  valued  a  citizen  has 
evoked  a  general  and  profound  expression  of  regret  in  which 
we,  his  former  associates  of  The  Marquette  League,  desire 
to  formally  join. 

Wherefore,  As  an  expression  of  the  intimate  and  par- 
ticular loss  occurring  to  this  society  by  reason  of  the  death 
of  Andrew  J.  Shipman, 

Be  It  Resolved,  That  this  formal  expression  of  regret  be 
forwarded  Mrs.  Andrew  J.  Shipman  and  that  it  be  spread 
upon  the  minutes  of  this  meeting,  the  first  since  Mr.  Ship- 
man's  death. 

Eugene  A.  Philbin, 

President. 
Alfred  J.  Talley, 

Secretary. 


RESOLUTIONS  xxix 

New  York  State  Board  of  Regents 

Abstract  from  the  Journal  of  a  Meeting  of  the  Board 

OF  Regents  of  the  University  of  the 

State  of  New  York 

Held  in   the  State  Education  Building,   Albany, 

October  21,  IQ13 

The  Board  of  Regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of 

New  York  met  in  the  Regents'  Chamber  in  the  Education 

Building,  Albany,  at  10  a.  m.,  October  21,  1915,  pursuant  to 

a  call  duly  sent  to  each  Regent  as  provided  by  law. 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  Vice  Chancellor 
Vander  Veer. 

The  following  Regents  were  present:  Vice  Chancellor 
Albert  Vander  Veer,  Regents  Chester  S.  Lord,  William 
Nottingham,  Francis  M.  Carpenter,  Abram  L  Elkus,  Adelbert 
Moot,  Charles  B.  Alexander,  John  Moore  and  Walter  Guest 
Kellogg.  The  President  of  the  University  and  Commissioner 
of  Education  was  also  present. 

The  Vice  Chancellor  reported  an  excuse  for  absence  from 
Chancellor  Sexton,  which  was  voted  satisfactory. 


IN  MEMORY  OF  REGENT  SHIPMAN 

Vice  Chancellor  Vander  Veer  read  a  letter  from  Chancellor 
Sexton  as  follows : 

October  20,    191 5. 

The  Honorable  Albert  Vander  Veer, 

My  Dear  Vice  Chancellor: 

It  will  not  be  possible  for  me  to  attend  the  meeting  of  the 
Regents  to-morrow,  and  I  respectfully  request  them  to  excuse 
my  absence. 

You  will  have  just  returned  from  the  funeral  of  our  de- 
parted brother,  Regent  Shipman,  whose  death  has  made  us 
all  very  sorrowful.  To  the  tributes  which  will  be  paid  to  him 
by  the  Regents  and  entered  in  their  Journal,  I  would  like 
to  add  an  expression  of  my  own  great  regard  for  Doctor 
Shipman. 

My  acquaintance  with  him  has  been  short,  having  begun 
with  his  entrance  into  our  Board,  and  our  official  relations 


XXX  RESOLUTIONS 

therein  have  been  mainly  my  opportunities  for  knowing  him. 
But  such  association  quickly  made  him  a  highly  esteemed 
personal  friend,  and  revealed  him  to  me  as  an  admirable  man 
of  marked  ability  and  earnest  devotion  to  noble  purpose. 
His  usefulness  as  a  Regent  of  the  University  was  great  and 
increasing,  and  his  counseling  will  be  missed  in  our  delibera- 
tions. 

We  will  be  moved  to  mention  at  this  time  our  appreciation 
of  his  valuable  service  to  the  State  in  the  recent  Constitutional 
Convention,  and  we  will  gratefully  recall  the  quieting  satis- 
faction we  had  in  knowing  that  he  was  one  of  the  leading 
members  of  its  committee  on  education. 

The  members  of  the  Board  will  probably  wish  to  have  in- 
serted in  our  Journal  a  portrait  of  Regent  Shipman,  together 
with  a  biographical  sketch  of  his  general  career. 

With  kindest  regards. 

Very  sincerely  yours, 

Pliny  T.  Sexton. 

Remarks  by  Vice  Chancellor  Vander  Veer 

My  Brother  Regents: 

We  deeply  regret  the  absence  of  our  dearly  beloved  Chan- 
cellor Sexton.  His  absence,  I  understand,  is  due  to  illness 
in  his  family,  though  not  of  an  alarming  nature.  He  will  be 
greatly  missed,  not  only  in  our  official  duties  for  the  day,  but 
during  the  entire  Convocation. 

The  sudden  and  unexpected  death  of  one  of  our  asso- 
ciates brings  us  a  sorrow  that  will  permeate  all  our  delibera- 
tions. In  the  death  of  Regent  Shipman  we  are  called  upon 
to  part  with  an  unusually  able  fellow  worker.  He  was  un- 
tiring in  his  devotion  to  his  duties  as  a  Regent,  and  his  very 
presence  was  one  of  cheer  and  comfort,  especially  when  we 
had  serious  problems  to  consider.  He  was  a  broad-minded 
citizen,  thoroughly  posted  upon  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  and 
possessed  a  knowledge  with  which  we  can  ill  afford  to  part. 

It  seems  proper  that  we  should  make  record  in  our  min- 
utes of  our  great  respect  for  Regent  Shipman  and  our  deep 
appreciation  for  the  past  few  years  of  beneficial  assistance 
granted  us  by  him.  When  we  reach  our  roll  call  it  will  be  the 
saddest  in  a  period  of  nearly  twenty  years.     To  his  family 


RESOLUTIONS  xxxi 

how  sad  must  be  the  parting,  and  to  them  we  can  offer  much 
in  comfort  and  consolation. 

Tribute  of  Regent  Lord 

We  meet  this  morning  in  profound  sorrow  because  of  the 
departure  from  us,  to  return  no  more,  of  our  friend  and  co- 
worker, Regent  Shipman.  I  am  sure  that  we  all  had  come 
to  be  very  fond  of  him  because  of  his  genial  and  kindly  ways, 
his  overflowing  cheerfulness  and  his  splendid  companionship. 
He  was  a  man  of  high  ideals  and  of  inborn  refinement,  a 
scholar  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term,  a  pillar  in  the  church, 
a  comfort  and  a  delight  to  his  family  circle,  a  man  and  a  citizen 
above  reproach.  Those  of  us  who  attended  his  funeral  yes- 
terday were  profoundly  impressed  by  the  outpouring  of  people 
who  had  come  to  do  him  honor,  and  by  the  beauty  and  the 
solemnity  of  the  service  over  his  mortal  remains. 

As  a  member  of  this  Board  he  was  able  and  faithful  and 
willing,  always  ready  to  do  a  little  more  than  his  share  and 
always  performing  every  service  with  conscientious  loyalty. 
His  knowledge  of  the  ways  of  the  world  and  his  conspicuous 
erudition  especially  fitted  him  to  be  an  educator.  He  was  a 
most  useful  member  and  we  sorrow  over  his  loss  as  an  ad- 
viser and  a  helper,  while  we  grieve  over  the  departure  of  a 
friend  and  a  cherished  companion. 

Tribute  of  Regent  Nottingham 

This  circle  has  been  suddenly  and  stealthily  invaded  by 
that  messenger  whose  summons  in  cases  like  that  of  Regent 
Shipman  means  rest  from  earthly  cares  and  labors  and  a  call 
to  activity  in  a  wider  sphere.  He  went  out  from  us  in  the 
prime  of  life,  with  his  "shadow  just  falling  to  the  East,"  and 
in  such  apparent  fulness  of  strength  that  we  can  scarce  per- 
suade ourselves  that  he  has  not  just  stepped  out  for  a  moment, 
rather  than  departed  not  to  return.  Regent  Shipman  brought 
with  him  to  this  office  a  full  appreciation  of  its  importance 
and  a  keen  sense  of  personal  responsibility  in  the  discharge 
of  its  duties.  During  his  term  of  service,  cut  short  by  death, 
he  evinced,  by  the  study  of  every  question  and  patient  atten- 
tion to  detail,  his  interest  and  love  for  the  work.  He  enter- 
tained positive  convictions  upon  mooted  questions,  and  was 


xxxii  RESOLUTIONS 

always  frank  and  outspoken  in  debate.  Regent  Shipman  was 
an  untiring  student,  and  a  scholar  of  wide  and  varied  attain- 
ments, with  much  opportunity  for  travel  and  large  acquain- 
tance with  men  and  affairs.  As  a  lawyer  he  stood  in  the  first 
rank  of  the  profession;  and  in  the  recent  Constitutional  Con- 
vention he  did  most  important  work.  As  an  associate  and 
co-worker  in  this  Board  I  need  not  say  to  you  that  his  effi- 
ciency, geniality  and  consideration  endeared  him  to  us  all. 

Tribute  of  Regent  Elkus 

It  was  with  keen  personal  regret  that  I  learned  of  the  loss  of 
our  friend,  Regent  Shipman.  I  have  personally  known  him 
for  many  years  and  respected  and  esteemed  him  for  his  great 
ability,  his  industry  and  his  high  character  and  ideals.  It 
has  been  my  pleasure  to  have  served  with  him  upon  many  of 
the  committees  of  this  Board,  and  thus  to  acquaint  myself 
with  the  care  and  consideration  which  he  gave  to  all  his  work 
and  with  the  absolute  fairness  and  impartiality  of  his  mind  and 
with  the  clearness  of  his  judgment.  He  was  a  real  lover 
of  the  work  and  the  duties  of  the  Board  of  Regents.  The 
problems  connected  with  the  training  of  the  young  and  the 
education  of  the  elders  for  the  professions,  were  to  him  tasks 
he  esteemed  as  of  the  highest  order  and  to  which  he  was 
always  ready  to  give  his  time,  his  best  thought  and  his  ability. 
His  loss  will  be  a  personal  one  to  all  of  us,  as  well  as  a  great 
one  to  the  cause  of  education  and  to  the  State.  He  found  time 
to  serve  as  a  member  of  the  recent  Constitutional  Convention, 
and  there  rendered  great  service  not  only  in  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion but  in  all  the  problems  connected  with  the  administration 
of  justice  and  other  public  matters. 

Tribute  of  Regent  Moot 

Regent  Shipman  came  to  our  Board  a  stranger  to  me,  ex- 
cept that  I  had  known  of  him  as  a  scholarly  lawyer  of  high 
repute,  who  was  a  member  of  a  well-established  law  firm  in 
New  York  City.  After  he  became  a  member  of  our  Board, 
he  served  upon  committees  with  me,  as  well  as  upon  the  Board, 
and  I  came  to  value  highly  his  judgment  in  matters  as  to 
which  we  had  responsibility.  He  was  so  faithful,  so  modest, 
so   scholarly,   so   considerate,   so   helpful,    that   our   relations 


RESOLUTIONS  xxxiii 

soon  ceased  to  be  official  relations,  and  became,  rather,  the 
close,  intimate  and  friendly  relations  of  persons  engaged  in 
some  good  work  who  are  doing  their  best  to  promote  the 
common  weal.  At  our  last  session  at  Buffalo,  I  could  but 
notice  the  modesty  with  which  he  received  the  compliments 
showered  upon  him  for  his  very  helpful  and  intelligent  work 
in  connection  with  educational  matters  in  the  Constitutional 
Convention,  of  which  he  was  a  distinguished  member ;  he  being, 
in  fact,  the  only  member  of  our  body  in  that  convention.  He 
understood  our  ways  and  our  policies,  and  it  was  an  invaluable 
service  he  rendered  to  the  people  of  this  State  in  making  our 
ways  and  our  policies  known  to  members  of  the  convention,  so 
modestly  and  yet  so  well  that  the  convention,  almost  without 
discussion,  provided  in  the  Constitution  for  our  continuance 
in  well  doing. 

I  shall  never  forget  the  evening  after  the  adjournment  of 
our  Board  at  Buffalo  the  pleasure  I  had  in  having  Regent 
Shipman  and  his  wife  dine  with  me;  then  I  became  their 
guest  at  a  simple  entertainment,  and  once  again  the  genial, 
pleasant,  companionable  and  inspiring  nature  of  the  man 
revealed  itself,  and  once  again  I  saw  his  devotion  to  his  wife, 
and  thoroughly  understood  the  cause  for  it.  After  the  evening 
thus  spent  so  agreeably  that  I  shall  never  forget  it,  we  bade 
each  other  "good-bye,"  and  the  next  I  knew  of  Regent  Ship- 
man  was  the  announcement  of  his  death  in  the  public  press. 
His  loss  is  not  only  a  loss  to  the  State  and  to  our  body  offi- 
cially, but  I  believe  it  is  a  personal  loss  to  each  one  of  us,  as 
I  know  it  is  a  personal  loss  to  me. 

Tribute  of  Regent  Kellogg 

Regent  Shipman  was  a  scholar  of  attainments,  a  distin- 
guished lawyer,  hard  working,  conscientious  and  thorough  in 
everything  that  he  did,  zealous  in  his  desire  to  serve  the  State 
and,  with  his  many  capabilities,  rendering  the  State  a  splendid 
service.  In  his  death,  I  have  lost  a  good  friend,  and  we  a 
valued  associate. 

Remarks  by  President  Finley 

The  death  of  Regent  Shipman  gave  us  special  shock  because 
there  had  been  no  word  preparing  us  for  it.    When  I  last  saw 


xxxiv  RESOLUTIONS 

him,  at  the  Regents'  Meeting  in  Buffalo,  I  put  into  his  hands 
some  printed  information  about  lake  trips,  hoping  that  he 
would  find  in  a  journey  on  the  Great  Lakes  rest  and  refresh- 
ment after  his  unremitting  labors  of  the  summer,  for  I  had 
had  opportunity  to  know  with  what  diligence  and  taxing  of 
his  strength  he  served  the  State  during  the  months  of  the 
summer.  The  little  room  between  the  Regents'  Chamber  and 
my  room  was  made  his  room  and  there  he  spent  many  hours 
at  work  until  the  sittings  of  his  committees  and  of  the  Con- 
vention compelled  his  presence  at  the  Capitol. 

And  it  was  that  intimacy  of  association  which  permitted  me 
to  know  the  breadth  of  his  interest,  the  tolerance  of  his  spirit 
and  the  quick  flaming  of  his  mind  in  behalf  of  justice  or  in 
sympathy  with  those  who  have  suffered  oppression  or  hard- 
ship. 

I  recall  with  satisfaction  and  gratitude  that  he  was  of 
the  committee  appointed  by  your  Honorable  Board  to  notify 
me  formally  of  my  election  as  President  of  the  University 
and  Commissioner  of  Education,  and  that  the  relationship 
which  followed  was  most  cordial  and  fraternal  to  the  very 
end. 

To  have  earned  distinction  in  his  profession,  to  have  evoked 
such  tribute  as  was  given  him  by  his  church  and  the  church 
of  the  Slavic  people  whom  he  befriended,  and  to  have  had 
a  deserved  place  in  the  highest  educational  board  in  the 
State,  are  witnesses  that  he  served  exceptionally  his  day  and 
generation. 

His  death,  in  its  very  untimeliness,  as  it  seems  to  us,  in- 
tensifies our  sense  of  loss,  for  we  lose  not  only  his  presence 
but  the  prospect  of  his  help  through  years  to  come. 

On  motion  of  Regent  Alexander,  it  was 

Voted,  That  the  communication  of  the  Chancellor  and  the 
remarks  of  the  Vice  Chancellor  and  the  President  of  the  Uni- 
versity, together  with  a  biographical  sketch  and  portrait  of 
Regent  Shipman,  be  embodied  in  the  Journal  of  this  meeting, 
and  that  Regent  Moore  be  requested  to  make,  on  behalf  of 
the  Board  of  Regents,  at  the  memorial  exercises  at  the  Uni- 
versity Convocation  this  afternoon,  suitable  expression  of  our 


RESOLUTIONS  xxxv 

deep  sorrow  in  the  death  of  our  brother  Regent  and  of  our 
great  appreciation  of  his  high  character. 


Proceedings    of    the    Fifty-First    Convocation    of    the 
University  of  the  State  of  New  York 

Auditorium,  State  Education  Building,  Albany,  N.  Y., 
Thursday  afternoon,  October  21,  1915,  2.30  p.  m.  The  Honor- 
able Albert  Vander  Veer,  M.  D.,  Vice  Chancellor  of  the 
University,  presiding. 

Vice  Chancellor  Vander  Veer: 

Since  this  program  was  arranged,  a  second  sorrow  came 
to  the  Board  of  Regents  and  the  Department  of  Education  in 
the  sudden  and  unexpected  death  of  Regent  Andrew  J.  Ship- 
man,  in  memory  of  whom  Regent  Moore  will  now  speak. 


Address  in  Memory  of  Regent  Andrew  J.  Shipman 

By  John  Moore 
Regent  of  the  University 

"God's  finger  touched  him  and  he  slept!" 

That  which  was  mortal  of  Andrew  Jackson  Shipman, 
lawyer,  scholar,  churchman,  constitutional  reviser  and  Regent 
of  The  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  lapsed  gently 
into  death's  embrace,  at  his  home  in  New  York,  Sunday  night ; 
and  yesterday  we  gathered  about  his  bier  in  St.  Patrick's 
Cathedral  in  New  York  City,  where  the  last  honors  of  the 
Church — his  holy  mother — were  bestowed  upon  a  brilliant  and 
devoted   son. 

The  death  of  Regent  Shipman  was  wholly  unexpected  to 
his  associates  and  aids  in  the  University,  to  whom  the  sad 
news  came  with  a  force  that  shocked — and  stunned.  His  de- 
mise is  a  loss  to  the  community  in  which  he  lived ;  it  is  a  loss 
to  the  Church  to  which  he  gave  devoutness  of  heart  and 
sanctity  of  purpose ;  it  is  a  loss  to  the  State  to  which  he  gave 
wise  and  sagacious  counsel— to  the  Regents  of  the  University, 
and  the  cause  of  public  education,  to  an  extent  rarely  felt  in 
the  passing  of  a  Regent  who  had  served  less  than  three  years 


xxxvi  RESOLUTIONS 

on  the  Board — a  board  the  elder  members  of  which  are  rightly- 
regarded  as  most  distinguished  men. 

Our  beloved  associate  in  his  church,  professional  and  edu- 
cational life  had  achievements  to  his  credit,  not  all  known  to 
the  general  public,  which,  when  the  record  of  his  life  is 
written  will  give  to  him  a  place  of  eminence  in  the  law,  in 
churchmanship,  statesmanship  and  as  a  patriot,  unswerving 
and  unswervable.  He  knew  how  to  be  useful  in  these  do- 
mains, and  in  many  broad  ways,  but  among  men,  and  amid 
their  activities,  he  was  finely  modest  in  example  and  action, 
for  he  was  of  the  temper  of  those  who  "do  good  by  stealth 
and  blush  to  find  it  fame." 

Regent  Shipman  was  an  American  through  and  through — 
an  American  Catholic  gentleman  of  the  flawless  type.  He 
loved  the  institutions  of  his  country,  and  gave  the  best  that 
was  in  him  to  their  promotion  and  advancement. 

Pride  of  family  he  rightly  had,  but  he  made  no  display 
thereof.  Born  in  the  Southland  he  came  to  the  Empire  State 
for  adoption,  and  New  York  never  had  a  truer  adopted  son. 
His  birthplace  was  in  Springvale  in  Fairfax  county,  Virginia ; 
the  date  of  his  birth  October  15,  1857,  so  that,  dying  on 
October  17,  191 5,  he  had  just  closed  his  fifty-eighth  year. 
He  was  the  son  of  John  J.  Shipman  and  Priscilla  Carroll,  and 
his  early  education  was  in  the  common  schools  of  Virginia- 
Later  he  entered  Georgetown  University  and  still  later  New 
York  University,  taking  his  B.  A.  degree  in  the  latter  in 
1878. 

For  a  considerable  period  he  was  engaged  in  the  United 
States  customs  service  investigating  sugar  frauds  and  other 
offenses  against  the  national  government,  a  work  in  which  he 
rendered  the  Federal  authorities  most  valuable  aid.  It  was 
not  until  1886  that  he  was  graduated  from  the  law  school  of 
New  York  University,  and  in  the  three  decades  which  have 
elapsed  he  has  achieved  distinction  not  only  by  the  general 
practice  at  the  bar,  but  he  has  been  chief  counsel  in  many 
noted  cases  wherein  new  law  has  been  definitely  expressed, 
or,  probably  more  correctly  speaking,  the  true  law  has  been 
fnore  distinctly  defined  and  established.  He  was  in  the 
notable  litigation  known  as  the  St.  Stephen's  Church  cases ; 
in  many  cases  involving  the  relations  of  employers  and  em- 
ployees where  the  rights  of  collective  or  organized  labor  were 


RESOLUTIONS  xxxvii 

at  stake ;  and  also  in  important  probate  cases,  all  of  great 
importance  at  the  time  and  of  equal  moment  to-day. 

Regent  Shipman's  last  conspicuous  legal  work  was  as  a 
delegate  to  the  State  Constitutional  Convention  in  session 
in  Albany  during  the  summer  just  past,  and  it  is  the  judg- 
ment of  his  confreres  that  he  was  one  of  the  ablest  and  most 
industrious  members  of  that  great  deliberative  body.  It  is, 
I  think,  the  judgment  of  his  friends  and  of  some  of  his  asso- 
ciate Regents,  that  his  labors  as  a  student  of  constitutional 
revision,  during  a  long  and  depressing  summer,  so  under- 
mined his  constitution  and  impaired  his  vitality  that  he  was 
unable  to  combat  an  illness  of  pneumonia,  with  ensuing  com- 
plications that  caused  death. 

President  Finley,  in  intimate  touch  with  the  work  of  the 
constitutional  revisers,  cooperated  freely  with  Mr.  Shipman, 
and  understands  how  seriously  and  laboriously  our  sleeping 
friend  applied  himself  to  the  task  of  a  revision  of  the  consti- 
tution that  would  command  the  approval  of  our  citizenry. 

There  was  an  incident  attending  the  final  work  of  the  con- 
vention which  evinced  the  tolerant,  courteous  and  forbearing 
attributes  of  the  honored  dead.  The  record  shows  that  when 
the  final  vote  was  taken  to  determine  whether  the  prepared 
revision  should  be  submitted  to  the  people,  Mr.  Shipman,  an- 
nouncing that  as  written  it  did  not  express  his  ideals,  credited 
the  convention  with  having  wrought  with  fidelity  for  the  best 
as  that  body  saw  it,  and,  therefore,  would  not  oppose  its  sub- 
mission to  the  people,  but  voted  to  do  so.  This  was  typical 
of  the  man,  of  the  tolerant  and  able  lawyer,  of  the  fair- 
minded  publicist — seeking  to  attain  the  best  in  the  science  of 
government. 

In  the  usual  acceptation  of  the  term,  Mr.  Shipman  was  not 
a  politician.  He  was  an  adviser  as  to  public  policies  in  city 
and  state,  but  not  a  practical  performer ;  he  was  wise  in  coun- 
sel, always  advocating  movements  and  policies  of  the  better 
sort. 

It  is  the  ambition  of  most  lawyers  of  his  learnedness  in 
the  law,  and  of  his  juridical  attainments,  or  qualities,  to  look 
forward  to  a  seat  on  the  bench  of  the  Supreme  Court,  or 
higher,  and  it  is  to  his  honor  if  he  cherished  that  ambition. 
But  for  his  untimely  death  such  a  preference  would  doubt- 


xxxviii  RESOLUTIONS 

less  have  been  realized,  but  it  would  have  been  a  loss  to 
the  Board  of  Regents. 

It  was  as  a  Regent  that  most  of  his  associates  here  had 
come  to  know  and  love  him.  Two  years  ago  last  May  he 
was  elected  by  the  Legislature  to  be  a  Regent  of  the  Uni- 
versity, because  he  was  admirably  equipped  for  the  duties 
that  awaited.  We  found  him  at  once  an  associate  of  fine 
mentality,  strong  in  character  as  he  was  robust  in  person, 
wealthy  in  the  humanities  and  ardent  in  moral,  ethical  and 
educational  zeal. 

In  the  Board  he  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  educational  extension  and  a  member  of  the  committees 
on  law,  licenses  and  appointments.  On  each  of  these  com- 
mittees he  served  with  the  fullest  measure  of  industry  and 
with  a  soundness  and  discretion  that  marked  him  as  one 
of  the  strongest  and  most  useful  in  our  councils.  He  was  a 
practical  aid  to  the  Regents,  and  a  firm  adviser  of  our  Presi- 
dent, with  whose  selection  he  had  much  to  do.  For  this  one 
service  alone  the  State  and  the  University  should  long  remem- 
ber him  with  honor  and  deep  appreciation.  A  more  charming 
companion  and  entertaining,  informative  associate  we  can 
hardly  look  for  in  this  work-a-day  era. 

Take  him  as  you  will,  Regent  Shipman  was  truly  ripe  and 
wholesome.  He  knew  life,  and  he  knew  it  right,  and  saw 
it  wnth  eyes  wide  open,  with  vision  unclouded,  battling  the 
abhorrent  and  welcoming  the  benign.  His  life's  endeavors, 
and  the  honors  conferred  on  him  before  he  entered  our  circle, 
made  manifest  his  learning  and  untarnished  humanities. 

He  was  a  doctor  of  laws  by  decree  of  his  Alma  Mater, 
Georgetown  University.  He  was  president  of  the  Mohansic 
State  Hospital,  an  associate  manager  of  the  Sevilla  Home  for 
Children,  a  member  of  the  National  Geographic  Society,  of  the 
American  Society  of  International  Law,  of  the  American 
Bar  Association,  of  the  New  York  State  Bar  Association, 
of  the  Municipal  Art  League  of  New  York  City,  president 
of  the  New  York  City  Alumni  of  Georgetown  University,  a 
member  of  the  Southern  Society,  of  the  American  Irish  His- 
torical Society,  one  of  the  promoters  of  and  a  contributor  to 
the  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  a  leader  in  the  Knights  of  Co- 
lumbus, a  member  of  the  Manhattan  Club,  of  the  Catholic 
Club,  of  the  Deutscher  Verein,  of  charitable  and  uplift  bodies 


RESOLUTIONS  xxxix 

like  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society,  the  Holy  Name  Society 
and  of  other  organizations  for  the  promotion  of  purity;  he 
was  active  in  the  development  of  a  moral  stage  and  the 
elimination  of  immoral  plays ;  in  fact,  in  the  encouragement 
of  the  clean  and  decent  in  the  drama,  in  musical  farce  comedy 
productions,  etc. 

Surely  this  busy  lawyer  and  peerless  Christian  gentleman 
was  well  engaged  in  the  work  of  higher  education,  before  he 
was  chosen  a  Regent  of  the  University. 

He  found  time,  too,  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  Slavic,^ 
Hungarian  and  Italian  emigrants  on  their  coming  to  the 
United  States ;  to  write  for  periodicals  and  to  give  public 
addresses  about  Russia,  the  Slavic  peoples  and  the  Eastern 
Church.  He  was  accomplished  as  an  Oriental  scholar,  familiar 
with  the  Slavic  language,  oral  and  written,  and  with  the 
civil  laws  of  those  eastern  peoples  and  the  religious  tenets, 
discipline  and  ceremonials  of  the  Eastern  Church.  Many 
times  he  visited  these  peoples  in^their  homeland,  where  he 
was  impressed  by  their  spirit,  their  piety  and  integrity,  love 
of  music  and  of  knowledge.  He  knew  their  conditions 
their  home  and  church  life,  and  was  imbued  by  their  h 
hopes  and  aims. 

Lawyers  will  be  interested  to  know ;  the  refined,  the 
scholarly  and  the  seekers  for  truth  and  admirers  of  achieve- 
ment will  be  no  less  interested  when  informed  that  it  was 
the  tact,  diplomacy  and  legal  knowledge  of  Andrew  J.  Ship- 
man  which  brought  into  harmony  and  unity  followers  of  the 
Greek  rite  in  the  United  States  with  the  authorities  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church. 

The  Slavic  people  are  growing  in  numbers  in  our  great 
cities,  and  have  been  numerous  in  the  coal  and  ore  mining 
districts  of  the  United  States.  From  the  Atlantic  coast  to 
the  Mississippi,  yes  to  the  Pacific  coast,  our  sleeping  associate 
is  revered  by  followers  of  the  Eastern  rite.  In  their  native 
land  in  the  east  Mr.  Shipman  was  known  and  honored  and 
among  his  choicest  possessions  when  he  died  were  the  medals 
and  decorations  bestowed  upon  him  by  church  dignitaries  of 
the  Greek  rite  and  by  Ruthenians  who  loved  him.  They  will 
be  treasured  mementoes   for  the   bereaved   wife,   so  sympa- 


;   in   I 
ligh^ 


xl  RESOLUTIONS 

thetic  with  Mr.  Shipman  in  the  deep  and  wide  humanity  that 
engrossed  a  part  of  his  useful  life. 

The  mortal  part  of  Andrew  J.  Shipman  sleepeth,  sleepeth 
until  Resurrection's  dawn  and  morn,  but  the  spiritual  part 
.yvill  live  forever.  Those  of  us  who  attended  the  funeral  cere- 
monies yesterday  can  never  forget  the  event.  It  will  be  a 
memory  treasure.  Many  of  you  are  familiar  with  the  im- 
pressive ceremony  of  final  benediction  according  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  rubrics,  but  few,  I  venture,  have  ever  witnessed  the 
ceremony  according  to  the  Greek  rite.  As  a  special  honor 
to  the  dead  the  highest  dignitary  of  the  Eastern  church  in 
this  country,  assisted  by  priests  of  the  Greek  rite,  conducted 
the  last  offices  for  the  dead,  with  prayers  and  in  chants  en- 
toned  with  a  pure  and  silvery  sweetness.  It  was  a  beautiful 
service,  the  clear  voices  of  the  chanters,  in  chants  often  in- 
tense with  the  spirit  of  grief,  of  supplication,  and  of  bene- 
diction, held  Catholic  and  non-Catholic  spellbound.  The 
silvery  cadences  of  the  voices  in  prayer  and  grief-imbued 
chant  can  not  be  forgotten. 

Now  I  come  to  another  thought  about  Regent  Shipman 
that  should  not  be  overlooked,  and  that  was  his  love  of  peace, 
the  peace  that  goes  with  honor.  Our  dead  friend  the  past 
year  was  greatly  disturbed  in  mind  and  heart  over  the  horrible 
warfare  in  Europe,  partly  because  great  peoples  observing 
the  Greek  rite  were  involved,  but  also  because  he  was  an 
earnest  advocate  of  peace  between  individuals  and  nations,  and 
had  powerfully  labored  to  that  end.  He  held  that  true  peace 
can  only  exist  in  the  domain  ruled  by  sound  morality,  and 
that  moral  unsoundness  is  widespread  and  still  growing. 

"Just  think  of  it,"  said  he,  "it  is  immoral  to  steal,  but 
banks  build  strong  safety  vaults.  It  is  immoral  to  violate  the 
laws  governing  the  rights  of  person  or  property,  but  the  best 
communities  maintain  strong  police  or  armed  forces.  It  is 
immoral  to  kill  but  the  culture  of  Europe  is  at  war,  or  armed 
to  the  teeth  in  readiness  for  war.  Great  armies  clash  with 
frightful  losses  of  life,  and  down  the  scale  of  numbers  the 
fighters  lessen  until  only  a  handful  of  men  engage  in  atrocious 
combat  worse  than  a  dog  fight." 

In  substance,  thus  spoke  this  patriotic,  stalwart  son  of 
peace  and  piety.  Thus  spoke  a  sincere  lover  of  the  humane 
human,  spoke  one  who  could  not   father  malice  or  cherish 


RESOLUTIONS  xli 

hate.  Free  of  any  bigotry  in  thought  or  act  he  respected 
and  loved  the  peoples  of  every  race  or  creed ;  yes,  loved  them 
with  a  love  next  to  that  which  he  gave  to  his  beloved  wife,  or 
held  in  memory  for  a  saintly  mother.  He  upheld  the  lofty 
in  morals  and  ethics,  first  for  our  schools,  and  after  that  for 
the  rest  of  mankind.  Little  wonder  that  each  of  his  asso- 
ciates in  this  temple  devoted  to  education  is  sorely  bereaved  by 
his  departure,  and  prays  that  eternal  sunshine  be  with  him. 

The  author  ^  is  unknown  to  me,  but  a  Httle  poem  of  eight 
lines  appeals  as  quite  fitting  as  an  every-day  creed  for  any 
who  would  emulate  the  example  of  our  dead  friend: 

I  would  be  true,  for  there  are  those  who  trust  me ; 

I  would  be  kind,  for  there  are  those  who  care; 

I  would  be  strong,  for  there  is  much  to  suffer; 

I  would  be  brave,  for  there  is  much  to  dare ; 

I  would  be  friend  to  all,  the  foe,  the  friendless; 

I  would  be  giving,  and  forget  the  gift; 

I  would  be  humble,  for  I  know  my  weakness; 

I  would  look  up,  and  love  and  pray  and  lift. 

Measured  by  the  exalted  sentiment  of  these  inspiring  words 
and  lines,  Andrew  J,  Shipman  failed  not. 

^  Regent  Moore  has  been  informed  by  one  who  listened  to  his  address  that  the 
poem  quoted  was  written  in  Japan  some  twenty  years  ago  by  an  American.  The 
fugitive  lines  have  been  read  around  the  world,  but  nothing  further  is  known 
about  the  authorship. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

OF 

ANDREW  JACKSON  SHIPMAN 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

Andrew  Jackson  Shipman  was  born  at  Springvale,  Fair- 
fax Co.,  y^'  on  October  15,  1857,  the  eldest  child  of  Priscilla 
Carroll  and  John  James  Shipman.  From  his  mother  he  in- 
herited his  quiet  simplicity  and  unselfishness,  together  with  a 
kind  of  gentle  aloofness  which  was  manifested  except  to  a 
few  dear  and  tried  friends.  Certain  of  her  physical  traits  were 
his  also,— the  very  dark  hair,  the  deepset  eyes  and  the  contour 
of  brow  and  cheek.  His  father  gave  him  that  wide  sympathy 
with  all  nationalities  which  became  so  characteristic  of  him 
in  later  life,  his  energetic  wholeheartedness  and  his  turn  for 
practical  affairs.  The  student  in  him  came  from  his  grand- 
father, Bennett  Carroll. 

Andrew's  earliest  years  fell  during  the  upheaval  of  the 
Civil  War.  Very  soon  after  his  birth  his  parents  settled  at 
Villanova  in  Fairfax  County.  The  estate  lies  on  the  crest  of 
Pigeon  Hill,  one  of  the  series  of  heights  which  climb  in  steps 
from  the  Potomac  to  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  it  looks  over  slope 
and  plain  of  cultivated  fields  and  patches  of  woodland.  Here 
in  the  spreading  old  house,  built  piecemeal  around  the  original 
four-room  dwelling,  the  young  mother  spent  those  troubled 
years  with  her  father  and  little  son.  Only  from  time  to  time 
could  the  husband  come  home  from  the  army. 

The  homestead  lay  southwest  from  the  chain  of  forts  above 
the  Potomac  guarding  Washington,  and  was  not  far  from 
the  Federal  outposts.  It  was  an  everyday  affair  to  see  blue- 
coated  soldiers  riding  by  in  squads,  either  just  released  from 
picket  duty  or  straggling  through  the  orchards,  or  even  bring- 
ing their  rations  to  the  kitchen  in  the  yard  to  be  cooked  by 
the  indulgent  old  negro  who  presided  there. 

The  "little  rebel  zouave,"  as  Andrew  was  called  from  his 
yellow-bound  gray  jacket  made  by  his  Southern  mother,  was 
a  pet  of  the  Federal  soldiers,  who  sometimes  swung  him  to 
the  front  of  the  cavalry  saddle  and  carried  him  away  for 
long  rides.  One  day  he  was  brought  back  with  a  silver 
cavalry  badge  pinned  to  his  gray  rebel  jacket — a  silver  circle 
with  a  silver  cavalryman  on  his  horse  inside  the  circle,  and 

xlv 


xlvi  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

the  name  "P.  Podd,  Co.  G.  13th  N.  Y.  Cavalry"  on  the  nm. 
The  badge,  its  thin  silver  tarnished  with  the  years,  is  still  in 
possession  of  the  family. 

Later,  when  his  string  of  little  sisters,  all  born  after  the 
war,  rambled  about  with  him  in  the  woods,  he  used  to  thrill 
them  by  unearthing  battered  canteens  and  picking  up  rusty 
bayonet  points,  or  he  would  show  them  the  grave  where  the 
young  Southern  soldier — shot  in  a  skirmish  along  that  very 
wood  road — lay  buried  under  a  walnut  tree  at  the  far  end 
of  the  field. 

With  the  close  of  the  war  came  the  question  of  education. 
Already  the  boy,  who  had  been  taught  to  read  by  his  grand- 
father, was  beginning  to  be  fascinated  by  the  printed  page. 
Books  were  not  plentiful  in  a  young  household  in  those  stinted 
years,  and  there  were  no  children's  books  at  all.  But  at 
Strawberry  Vale,  the  house  on  the  hill  to  the  west,  just  across 
the  upper  pasture,  were  books  in  abundance.  All  the  old  Eng- 
lish novels,  Shakespeare  and  the  poets,  odd  volumes  of  Scott, 
old  histories,  and  rows  of  leather-bound  Latin  and  French 
authors  filled  cupboards  on  each  side  of  the  fireplace,  or  were 
stacked  on  shelves  under  the  dim,  wooden-faced  portraits. 
A  successful  school  had  once  been  maintained  there  and  these 
scores  of  volumes,  like  the  old  pianos  in  the  upper  hall,  were 
mementoes  of  the  time.  Here  Andrew  spent  all  his  spare 
hours.  Here  he  could  always  be  found,  and  here  he  learned 
early  what  comes  somewhat  slowly  into  the  consciousness  of 
a  boy  in  a  rural  environment,  that  life  and  its  expression  in 
other  lands  are  as  vivid  and  as  strong  as  in  his  own. 

The  attic  at  Strawberry  Vale  became  for  years  a  great 
playroom  for  the  Shipman  children.  Andrew  transformed 
the  place  into  a  theatre ;  he  built  a  stage  and  rigged  up  a  cur- 
tain that  glided  jerkily  but  safely  back  to  each  side,  and  in- 
stalled the  realistic  feature  of  tallow  candle  footlights.  He 
wrote  plays  in  which  all  the  children  took  part,  and  drew 
cartoons — mostly  Indians  in  war-bonnets  and  hatchets — 
which  still  adorn  the  whitewashed  walls  of  the  attic  at  Straw- 
berry Vale. 

His  first  real  school  was  a  mile  beyond  Strawberry  Vale. 
A  Miss  Tyson  taught  a  number  of  small  sisters  and  brothers 
and  a  few  children  of  her  neighbors.  The  road  to  the  house 
passed  through  the  pines  where  the  rusty  relics  of  the  war 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  xlvii 

lay  about  and,  on  a  high  plateau,  skirted  the  walls  of  an 
abandoned  Federal  stockade  and  signal  tower.  The  boys — a 
young  Tyson  became  his  inseparable  friend — found  the  wooden 
scaffold,  rising  with  its  zigzag  flights  of  steps  from  landing- 
place  to  landing-place  above  the  brushwood  beneath,  a  won- 
derful place  for  observation.  One  could  see  the  whole  country 
spread  out  like  a  map,  the  long  indigo  rampart  of  the  Blue 
Ridge  hemming  it  in,  the  truncated  top  of  Sugar  Loaf  looming 
up  in  Maryland, — and  lastly  the  sky  and  the  stars !  This  was 
the  very  spot  for  using  the  atlas  of  the  heavens  from  the 
Gantts'  attic  at  Strawberry  Vale.  A  little  practice  brought 
out  the  crying  need  of  a  telescope.  Fairfax  County,  as  far  as 
the  boys  knew,  did  not  contain  a  telescope.  No  parent  was 
willing  to  invest  money  in  one.  There  was  nothing  for  it  but 
to  earn  it,  which  was  an  easy  matter  in  harvest  time  when 
a  water-boy  is  an  absolute  necessity.  The  necessary  amount 
was  earned  and  hoarded  gradually ;  a  lengthy  correspondence 
with  a  Philadelphia  firm  opened,  and  at  last  news  came  that 
the  precious  instrument  had  arrived  in  Georgetown, — it  could 
not  be  sent  by  express  to  Lewinsville.  But  it  came  on  Satur- 
day,— that  meant  an  unendurable  wait  until  Monday  and 
the  impatient  owners  could  not  wait.  They  walked  to  George- 
town, ten  miles  there  and  back,  arriving  home  in  the  middle 
of  the  night,  too  triumphant  in  possession  of  the  telescope 
to  mind  the  necessary  interview  with  anxious  parents ;  for  of 
course  they  had  walked  without  asking  the  leave  they  knew 
they  could  not  get. 

Miss  Tyson's  school  was  soon  outgrown  and,  as  public 
education  was  just  struggling  into  existence  in  those  days  in 
Fairfax,  a  medley  of  teachers,  more  or  less  competent,  suc- 
ceeded one  another  on  the  platform  in  the  one-room  school 
house  at  Lewinsville.  The  two  who  had  most  influence  on 
Andrew  and  did  much  toward  developing  his  bent  were,  as  it 
happened,  Germans, — a  certain  Julius  Golding  and  an  Aus- 
trian ex-army  officer,  Augustus  von  Degen.  They  saw  at 
once  that  the  boy  had  abilities  above  the  average  and  a  rather 
surprising  range  of  knowledge,  and  singling  him  out  among 
the  score  of  lads  to  whom  books  were  an  unavoidable  evil, 
they  grounded  him  in  Latin,  Greek  and  mathematics.  They 
took  considerable  pains  with  his  literary  studies  and  Golding 
found  that  Andrew  had  a  gift  for  drawing  which,  if  his  in- 


J 


xlviii  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

terest  in  other  studies  had  not  proved  stronger,  might  have 
influenced  his  subsequent  career  in  a  different  direction. 

It  was  von  Degen,  however,  who  urged  Mr.  John  Shipman 
to  send  his  son  to  Georgetown  in  1871,  rather  than  to  Blacks- 
burg  Agricultural  College,  as  it  was  then  called,  where  so  many 
of  the  Fairfax  youths  went.  Von  Degen  knew  the  strength 
of  the  Jesuit  teaching  and  the  intellectual  value  of  the  long 
classical  drill. 

At  that  time  neither  Andrew  nor  his  parents  were  Cath- 
olics, although  the  five  younger  children  had  been  baptized  at 
their  birth.  His  mother  was  a  descendant  of  a  Catholic  fam- 
ily, but  was  herself  an  Episcopalian  through  the  accident  of 
her  grandfather,  a  posthumous  child,  being  reared  by  an 
Episcopal  mother.  Andrew's  father  had  as  yet  no  religious 
affiliation,  but  greatly  admired  the  Catholic  Church,  of  which 
he  became  a  member  later  in  life.  It  was  his  wish,  together 
with  the  mother's  feeling  that  her  own  faith  should  be  Catholic 
(as  it  became  not  many  years  afterwards),  which  had  led  to  the 
baptism  and  Catholic  training  of  the  younger  children.  Mrs. 
Shipman  taught  all  of  her  children  Catholic  prayers,  which 
she  was  accustomed  to  say  herself. 

It  was  at  Georgetown  that  Andrew  became  a  Catholic,  but 

instead  of  being  baptized  in  the  college  chapel,  he  went  alone 

to  the  church  of  St.  Dominic  in  Washington  for  his  reception. 

iFrom  the  moment  he  entered  college  his  interest  in  religious 

1  rites,  orders  and  history  became  absorbing. 

He  was  a  teacher  by  nature  as  he  was  a  student  by  nature. 
Older  by  some  years  than  his  sisters,  he  had  taken  it  upon 
himself  when  home  to  teach  them,  and  he  never  allowed  him- 
self to  forget  his  task  even  while  away.  Letters  written  when 
he  was  a  lad  in  the  Georgetown  preparatory  school  contain 
careful  lessons  in  French  and  German  for  his  next  sister. 
Later  during  his  college  years  he  planned  a  course  of  study 
for  his  sisters  which  they  followed  under  their  governess. 
His  holidays  were  for  them  a  mingling  of  delight  and  misery. 
Instead  of  being  free,  say  on  a  sunny,  mild  Sunday  in  March, 
to  go  to  the  south  meadow  and  gather  Johnny- jump-ups, 
whitening  in  a  wave  the  warm  slope  of  the  big  guUey  with 
delicate,  pale  blooms,  they  had  to  sit  in  tongue-tied  dismay 
face  to  face  with  a  long,  chalked-up  line  of  third  declension 
Latin  nouns  or  some  verb,  monstrous  with  such  irregularities 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  xlix 

that  the  various  tense  forms  simply  could  not  be  guessed  or 
invented. 

In  the  autumn  of  his  junior  year  he  developed  typhoid 
fever  and  lay  very  ill  for  three  months.  His  life  was  despaired 
of  more  than  once.  Yet  he  recovered  and,  when  well,  took  up 
his  studies  in  the  last  half  of  the  year  and  finished  with 
honors. 

The  doctor  at  Georgetown  and  the  President  of  the  col- 
lege insisted  that  it  was  not  safe  for  Andrew  to  enter  at  once 
upon  an  indoor  occupation  until  his  health  should  become 
firmly  established.  It  was  agreed  that  he  should  spend  ai-, 
much  time  as  possible  in  the  open  air.  But  in  September, 
returning  from  a  vacation,  he  revolted  against  the  programme 
of  mental  idleness  mapped  out  for  him,  and  threw  himself  into 
the  study  of  languages,  German  and  Italian  especially.) 

In  two  ideas  he  was  ahead  of  his  time.  By  his  direction 
his  sisters  studied  in  the  open  air  on  a  big  verandah  which 
looked  down  the  green  lines  of  the  orchard  trees.  Here  they 
remained  as  late  in  the  fall  as  the  weather  permitted  and 
thither  they  repaired  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring. 

His  other  idea  was  that  his  sisters'  studies  should  be  the 
same  as  those  at  Georgetown ;  first  the  preparatory  courses 
and  then  those  of  the  college.  He  proposed  that  they  should 
stand  the  same  examinations  as  were  given  in  his  Alma  Mater 
and,  if  it  were  possible,  to  be  given  a  degree  when  they  had 
made  the  required  studies.  This  was  in  1878  and  Andrew 
was  a  Southern  young  man,  bred  among  rural  Southerners 
who  had  not  then  much  sympathy  with  or  faith  in  the  higher 
education  of  women. 

His  plans  in  this  matter  of  education  were  never  carried 
out  completely.  As  time  went  by  other  aims  engrossed  him,  as 
they  should,  and  other  interests  claimed  him,  although  he  al- 
ways remained  full  of  enthusiasm  and  encouragement  for 
his  sisters  when  it  was  a  question  of  education.  He  took 
them  into  what  would  be  about  the  third  year  of  the  four 
year  high  school  course  of  to-day  and  when  he  left  them 
they  were  in  their  early  teens.  The  grounding  they  received 
in  Latin  was  far  more  thorough  than  is  given  in  any  high 
school.  That  other  teaching,  the  unconscious,  which  does 
its  work  by  example  and  association,  cannot  be  too  much 
emphasized — an   intense   belief    in   and   reliance   on   Catholic 


y 


1  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

truth,  an  abiding  interest  in  history  of  the  past  and  in  the 
making,  were  some  of  the  many  things  impressed  indeHbly 
upon  his  pupils. 

During  this  time  he  took  an  active  interest  in  the  little 
missionary  church  of  St.  James  which  had  been  built  while 
he  was  away  at  college.  It  was  three  miles  from  Springvale 
near  the  village  of  Falls  Church.  He  served  as  acolyte  when- 
ever necessary.  He  undertook  the  practical,  not  the  musical, 
management  of  the  choir,  who  were  volunteers  from  the  con- 
gregation ;  he  purchased  the  music,  saw  that  order  was  main- 
tained and  that  reverence  ruled  in  the  choir  loft. 

After  three  years  in  the  Georgetown  preparatory  school 
Andrew  entered  Georgetown  College  in  the  fall  of  1874. 
His  whole  educational  career  lay  along  singularly  fortunate 
lines.  We  have  seen  what  his  early  schooling  was  in  the 
little  country  school  near  his  home.  It  is  true  that  he  had 
not  the  presumed  advantages  of  modem  methods,  such  as 
smooth  the  path  of  learning  for  the  psychological  child  of 
the  present  hour,  but  he  enjoyed  plain  straightforward  teach- 
ing and  drilling  in  the  rudiments  known  as  the  three  R's,  and 
his  mind  was  trained  to  realize  that  knowledge  was  to  be 
acquired  by  mental  effort  and  not  absorbed  as  amusement. 
This  was  an  asset  of  value  which  the  elder  teaching  possessed, 
whatever  it  lacked  as  measured  by  the  pedagogic  novelties 
that  set  the  fashions  of  to-day.  The  drudgery  of  learning 
is  just  as  essential  as  the  drudgery  of  ploughing.  No  young 
mind  was  ever  allured  into  the  path  of  knowledge  as  an  easy 
and  roseate  way  and  remained  there  for  long.  Andrew  Ship- 
man  was  fortunate  in  being  schooled  in  his  early  years  to 
the  method  of  mental  work  and  earnestness,  and  the  sincerity 
and  genuineness  of  his  character  readily  yielded  the  golden 
vein  to  the  process.  With  what  a  handicap  he  might  have 
been  burdened  had  his  young  powers  been  pampered  and 
jellified  by  the  uncertain  psychological  experiment  now-a-days 
counting  its  victims  by  the  tens  of  thousands. 

Von  Degen's  persuasion  of  the  elder  Shipman  to  send 
Andrew  to  Georgetown  was  another  happy  circumstance.  The 
classical  drill  and  prescribed  curriculum  of  the  Jesuit  system 
gave  mental  system,  balance  and  the  habit  of  diligence.  There 
was  no  line  of  least  resistance  by  way  of  electivism  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil.     He  took  the  prescribed  course  willy-nilly 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  li 

and  learned  that  education  meant  work.  The  co-ordination 
of  all  the  studies  of  the  graded  curriculum  to  the  one  end, 
the  moulding  of  character  and  the  integral  development  of 
all  the  powers  of  mind  and  heart,  had  no  better  illustration 
and  exemplification  than  in  the  career  of  Andrew  Shipman. 

He  was  a  student  at  Georgetown  seven  years  in  all,  from 
1871  to  1878,  three  in  the  preparatory  school  and  four  in  the 
college.  During  his  entire  student  career  he  won  distinction 
in  his  studies,  and  more  than  once  first  honors  in  his  classes. 
In  his  junior  year  he  won  the  Philodemic  Medal  and  the  Mor- 
ris Historical  Medal ;  in  his  senior  year,  the  Mechanics  Medal, 
the  Tennyson  Prize  Essay  Medal  and  the  Hoffman  Mathe- 
matical medal.  He  was  always  eager  for  knowledge,  and  his 
training  at  Georgetown  stimulated  his  mental  appetite.  He 
was  by  nature  a  student  and  a  keen  one,  but  not  the  pale  and 
melancholy  book-worm  so  often  held  up  to  the  popular  imagi- 
nation as  typical.  He  was  robust  both  in  body  and  mind, 
hearty  and  afifable  in  manner,  but  modest  and  retiring.  He 
had  no  athletic  proclivities,  but  at  times  took  part  in  and  en- 
joyed the  wholesome  exercise  of  some  of  the  games  in  which 
the  students  of  that  time  indulged.  If  I  remember  correctly 
hand-ball  was  his  favorite  game.  In  his  day  at  Georgetown 
athletics  had  not  developed  to  the  conspicuous  and  organized 
position  they  now  hold  in  college  programmes.  The  students 
played  their  games  with  zest  but  their  sports  held  no  major 
dignity  in  the  life  of  the  college.  They  were  intended  to  be 
a  needed  relaxation  and  the  means  of  building  up  a  healthy 
body  as  the  fitting  co-ordinate  of  a  healthy  mind. 

Even  in  his  college  days  Andrew's  mind  ran  to  recondite 
and  remote  things,  never,  however,  to  the  neglect  of  his  regu- 
lar studies.  Outside  of  class  hours,  the  surest  place  in  which 
to  find  him  was  in  the  college  library.  If  I  remember  aright 
he  was  unofficial  assistant  to  the  then  Hbrarian,  Rev.  John 
Sumner.  He  knew  the  library  thoroughly,  and  at  a  moment's 
notice  could  lay  his  hand  upon  any  book  asked  for,  no  easy 
accomplishment  in  those  days,  for  the  library  was  much 
crowded  and  many  volumes  were  in  odd  and  obscure  corners 
and  not  as  accurately  classified  as  they  might  have  been.  He 
was  a  book-lover,  though  not  a  book-worm,  a  distinction  with 
a  vast  difference.  He  enjoyed  books  vitally,  for  their  usufruct 
in  practical  application,  and  not  as   sepulchres  of  the  dead 


Hi  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

past.  I  recall  seeing  him  one  day  pouring  over  a  huge  tome 
in  Latin,  and  jocosely  enquired  of  him  what  musty,  dusty  bit 
of  erudition  he  was  ferreting  out  at  the  moment.  He  imme- 
diately proceeded  to  translate  a  passage,  which,  if  my  memory 
serves  me  after  so  long  a  lapse  of  time,  was  a  disquisition  on 
the  possibilities  of  a  self-propelled  air-ship.  He  himself  be- 
lieved it  was  possible,  and  enthusiastically  declared  that  some 
day  it  would  be  accomplished !     This  was  nearly  forty  years 

ago!  ,       .        . 

Andrew  was  always  ready  to  put  himself  at  one's  disposi- 
tion upon  any  point  of  research.  He  was  thorough,  pains- 
taking and  keen  upon  the  scent,  never  resting  satisfied  with 
half  results.  He  relished  the  quest  and  enjoyed  the  conquest 
immensely.  One  of  his  most  characteristic  traits,  which  I 
learned  to  appreciate  in  those  days,  was  his  whole-hearted 
faculty  of  giving  himself  for  others.  He  was  essentially  a 
giver  and  delighted  in  the  giving.  He  would  drop  his  own 
task  at  any  moment  and  take  up  yours.  I  never  went  into 
the  college  library  when  he  was  there  but  I  found  him  eager 
to  assist  me,  and  his  help  was  valuable,  for  he  always  knew 
where  to  go  for  the  nugget  requisitioned.  He  would  even 
push  the  enquiry  beyond  the  immediate  demand,  and  bring 
up  more  riches  than  one  might  need  for  the  purpose  of  the 
moment.  His  enjoyment  of  discovery  was  enhanced  a  thou- 
sandfold by  yours.  The  source  of  his  delight  was  not  so 
much  that  he  had  achieved  or  had  helped  to  achieve  the  task 
but  that  it  had  been  achieved  at  all.  At  such  times  his  face 
would  light  up  with  pleasure  and  one  could  not  fail  to  catch  the 
glow  of  his  enthusiasm.  He  had  scientific  interests  also. 
While  in  the  lower  school  at  Georgetown  he  was  always  work- 
ing at  photography,  making  many  experiments,  first  with  an 
old  camera  of  his  father's,  afterwards  with  a  better  instrument. 

In  1879  the  editorship  of  the  "Vienna  Times"  was  ofifered 
him.  Vienna  itself  was  three  miles  away,  but  when  the  office 
appurtenances  had  been  delivered  and  put  into  place  in  one 
of  the  innumerable  outbuildings  belonging  to  every  Virginia 
farm,  Vienna  seemed  to  have  been  transferred  to  Springvale. 
The  "Vienna  Times"  was  not  a  "patent  insides"  journal.  It 
was  set  up  in  type  and  printed  in  the  little  office  at  the  end 
of  the  yard,  and  in  rush  times,  or  when  the  letters  of  the 
correspondents  in  far  corners  of  the  country  were  late  com- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  liii 

ing  in,  even  the  editor's  sisters  were  pressed  into  service  and 
put  to  setting  type  or  dampening  the  sheets.  The  office  force 
was  small  and  sometimes  conspicuously  absent.  Besides  the 
editorials  Andrew  supplied  a  great  part  of  the  literary  con- 
tents himself  by  translation  and  articles  of  his  own.  The 
"Vienna  Times"  had  a  fairly  wide  circulation  in  Northern  Vir- 
ginia and  extracts  were  sometimes  copied  from  its  pages  into 
other  papers. 

After  graduation,  while  engaged  with  the  paper,  he  grew 
interested  in  the  telephone,  just  then  becoming  known.  As  an 
entire  instrument  could  not  be  bought,  he  purchased  the 
various  parts,  put  them  together,  and  found  himself  in  posses- 
sion of  two  telephones.  With  the  aid  of  three  young  friends 
of  his  own  age,  he  set  up  the  poles,  stretched  the  wires  and 
established  communication  between  Vienna  and  his  own  home. 
The  four  young  men  did  the  work  with  their  own  hands, 
including  the  cutting  of  the  poles.  This  was  in  the  open- 
ing '8o's. 

To  the  Shipman  home  drifted  every  foreigner  who  en- 
tered that  end  of  Fairfax  County.  That  Andrew  Shipman 
spoke  Spanish  was  well  known.  More  than  one  Spaniard 
or  Spanish  American  family  sought  him  out  to  explain  his 
or  its  situation  or  to  find  possible  employment.  Andrew  even 
stood  as  godfather  to  their  babies. 

One  day  in  the  autumn  arrived  one  Stefan^Melzer.  That 
was  only  part  of  his  name,  for  Stefan  had  a  Bohemian  father 
and  a  German  mother  and  the  Czeckish  name  was  too  difficult 
for  Fairfax  throats  and  lips.  Stefan  was  in  his  seafaring 
costume,  a  draggled  fur  cap  and  a  ragged  jersey.  He  had 
just  landed  at  Baltimore  and  had  set  out  to  walk  until  he 
found  employment.  He  had  been  forwarded  to  Andrew  Ship- 
man  as  one  who  could  understand  anything  a  foreigner  said. 
He  had  been  in  the  Austrian  army  and  spoke  German,  which 
was  the  medium  of  communication  between  him  and  Andrew. 
Stefan,  being  a  hoch  bauer,  was  anxious  to  learn  and  better 
himself,  and  finding  the  young  master  of  the  farm  was  curious 
about  languages,  exchanged  Czeckish  for  English.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  Andrew  Shipman's  fruitful  interest  in  the 
eastern  European  languages.  When  Stefan  went  West  a 
year  and  a  half  later — the  hot  summers  of  the  South  were 
too  much  for  him — Andrew  used  the  tongue  with  considerable 


liv  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

ease,  an  accomplishment  which  was  to  prove  of  marked  as- 
sistance to  him  in  his  next  step  in  Ufe. 

This  was  his  appointment  as  assistant  manager  of  the  coal 
mines  of  W.  P.  Rend  &  Co.  in  Hocking-  Valley,  Ohio,  which 
came  in  the  third  year  after  his  graduation.  Of  this  period  of 
his  life  there  are  no  records.  His  letters  have  unfortunately 
been  destroyed.  This  appointment  lifted  him  out  of  the  dul- 
ness  and  routine  of  a  country  editorship,  but  the  work  at  the 
mines  was  also  ill  suited  to  a  man  of  Shipman's  type  of  mind. 
Nevertheless  his  experience  at  the  coal  mines  was  valuable 
in  more  ways  than  one  and  became  practically  the  determin- 

(ing  factor  in  awakening  and  directing  his  large  and  fruitful 
interest — so  manifest  in  later  years  in  the  Slavic  peoples  of 
the  United  States.  I  once  asked  him  how  he  happened  to 
become  so  interested  in  this  work;  he  told  me  it  was  through 
his  contact  with  the  miners  of  Slavic  nationality  when  he  was 
with  W.  P.  Rend  &  Co.  in  Ohio.  He  had  some  acquaintance 
with  the  Czech  tongue  through  Stefan  Melzer.  This  he  found 
useful  in  his  work  among  the  miners  of  Hocking  Valley.  But 
it  by  no  means  sufficed.  The  Slavic  miners  of  Hocking  Val- 
ley spoke  various  dialects.  The  assistant  manager  with  char- 
acteristic determination  proceeded  to  learn  them  all.  This 
established  him  in  the  confidence  of  the  men,  and  his  knowl- 
edge of  their  languages  enabled  him,  when  differences  arose 
between  employer  and  employees,  to  act  as  interpreter  and 
intermediary.  In  one  instance  he  settled  a  strike,  which  was 
the  result  of  a  misunderstanding  of  tongues,  and  when  official 
interpreters  were  taking  advantage  of  both  parties  for  their 
own  ends. 

It  was  not  however  simply  Shipman's  interest  in  the  Slavic 
languages  or  his  official  relations  as  assistant  manager  or 
afterwards  as  superintendent  with  the  miners  that  led  him 
so  far  and  so  profoundly  in  his  special  pursuit  of  the  history, 
rites  and  customs  of  these  people.  His  sympathy  was  wider 
and  deeper.  He  found  an  alien  people  in  a  strange  land,  be- 
/wildered  and  perplexed  in  their  new  surroundings,  often  im- 
posed upon,  isolated  by  their  own  ignorance,  clinging  tena- 
ciously to  unwise  prejudices  brought  from  the  old  world, 
naturally  suspicious  and  aloof,  yet  very  human  and  with  all 
those  substantial  virtues  that  make  for  good  citizenship.  Ship- 
man's  was  a   wide  outlook.     He  saw   clearly   that   the   sole 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  Iv 

consideration  of  the  economic  status  of  these  people — and 
that  was  the  limited  purview  of  the  industrial  world — led 
not  to  betterment  but  to  further  alienation  and  to  both  moral 
and  civil  deterioration.  Among  these  foreigners  were  a  num- 
ber of  Catholics  without  clergy  of  their  own  tongue  and  to 
whom  the  Latin  rite  was  like  an  alien  religion.  These  condi- 
tions appealed  strongly  to  his  charity.  His  natural  beneficence 
was  quickened  and  the  supernatural  ardor  of  his  deeply  rooted 
faith  aroused.  These  people  must  be  saved,  not  only  in  a 
civic,  but  in  a  religious  sense,  and  their  religious  salvation 
depended  upon  their  steadfastness  in  their  Catholic  Faith. 
They  were  a  flock  without  a  shepherd.  Lured  to  America  by  / 
the  mirage  of  the  promised  land,  which  they  dreamed  could  i 
be  found  in  the  United  States,  they  were  pouring  in  great 
numbers  to  our  shores.  The  Church  in  this  country  had  no 
means  of  meeting  the  problem  and  scarcely  realized  it.  An- 
drew Shipman,  a  layman  thrown  into  close  contact  with  them, 
did  realize  it,  and  proceeded  to  devote  himself  to  its  solution. 
He  mastered  their  tongues,  studied  their  history,  their  rites 
and  their  customs,  placed  himself  en  rapport  with  their  sym- 
pathies and  their  aspirations.  All  this,  of  course,  not  in  a 
moment.  First  came  the  idea,  and  by  degrees  the  means.  It 
would  take  time  and  labor.  It  was,  therefore,  in  Hocking 
Valley,  Ohio,  that  an  obscure  mining  superintendent  first  felt 
the  apostolic  spirit  kindle  into  flame  in  his  breast  and  con- 
ceived the  beginning  of  the  plans,  which  in  later  years  were  to  . 
grow  to  such  abundant  fruit.  ( 

As  was  characteristic  of  him,  his  method  was  radical  and 
thorough.  He  must  first  learn  the  people  sympathetically  and 
completely.  How  well  he  accomplished  his  purpose  became 
manifest  in  the  result.  For  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life 
he  spent  nearly  all  his  vacations  among  the  Slavic  people  in 
Euioge.  He  made  their  acquaintance  in  their  original  habitat. 
He  studied  their  languages,  their  rites  and  their  history  at  j 
first  hand.  He  came  into  intimate  touch  with  their  clergy  in 
Europe,  acquainted  them  with  the  needs  of  their  people  in 
the  United  States,  urged  their  interest  and  their  co-operation 
and  conducted  a  voluminous  correspondence  with  them.  He 
also  took  up  the  matter  with  the  hierarchy  in  the  United 
States  and  received  their  help  and  participation.  It  was  a 
great  and  glorious  lay  apostolate  and  a  striking  exemplar  to 


/ 


Ivi  •       BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

others.  It  becomes  especially  noteworthy  when  we  take  into 
consideration  that  it  was  achieved  by  a  busy  man,  who  besides 
filling  his  professional  duties  with  success  and  distinction, 
gave  himself  unstintedly  to  many  public  and  private  services, 
which  drew  largely  upon  his  time  and  his  energy. 

After  two  years  at  the  mines,  young  Shipman  came  to  New 
York  in  ^§4,  where  he  obtained  a  positiQa..in,_the— U,  S. 
f  Customs  House  by  Civil  Service  Examination,  making  in  his 
examinations  the  TaighesFTecord  trp  to  that  time  and  rarely 
surpassed  since.  He  was  one  of  the  investigators  of  the 
sugar  frauds  in  the  following  year,  and  won  high  commenda- 
tion for  his  integrity,  his  thoroughness,  his  grasp  of  detail 
and  untiring  diligence  in  unravelling  the  tangled  skein  of  evi- 
dence in  the  case.  It  was  during  his  service  in  the  New  York 
Customs  House  that  he  studied  law  at  the  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York.  In  1886  he  received  his  degree  of  LL.B. 
and  in  the  course  of  the  same  year  was  admitted  to  the  New 
York  Bar.  In  1891  he  formed  a  law  partnership  with  Edmund 
L.  Mooney,  an  association  continued  uninterruptedly  until  his 
death,  though  in  1895  the  firm  was  reorganized,  upon  the  ad- 
mission of  Mr.  Charles  Blandy,  under  the  name  of  Blandy, 
Mooney  and  Shipman.  Of  Mr.  Shipman's  legal  career  and 
achievements  I  have  no  technical  knowledge  to  enable  me  to 
given  an  account.  In  lieu,  therefore,  of  any  attempt  on  my  part, 
I  am  privileged  to  quote  in  extenso  one  who  was  closely  asso- 
ciated with  him  throughout  his  professional  life  and  w^iose 
knowledge  is  both  first-hand  and  accurate. 

"Andrew  Jackson  Shipman  was  a  forceful  advocate,  a  wise 
counselor  and  an  eminent  ecclesiastical  lawyer  for  more  than 
a  generation  at  the  New   York  Bar. 

"He  studied  law  in  the  Law  Department  of  the  University 
of  the  City  of  New  York,  whence  he  was  graduated  LL.B. 
in  1886.  He  was  President  of  his  class  and  delivered  an  ora- 
tion at  the  graduating  exercises  held  in  the  old  Academy 
of  Music.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Bar  in  the  City  of  New 
York  in  the  latter  year. 

"In  his  collegiate  and  law  school  days  he  formed  friend- 
ships that  lasted  during  his  entire  lifetime,  and  spread  their 
branches  abroad  as  much  for  others  as  himself.  More  than 
that,   he   laid   the   foundations   of   business   and   professional 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  Ivii 

relations  that  continued  without  a  break,  and  with  ever  in- 
creasing strength,  until  his  death.  One  of  his  marked  char- 
acteristics was  constancy,  with  warm-hearted  devotion  to  his 
associates  and  friends. 

"Early  in  his  career  as  a  lawyer  he  became  identified  as 
attorney  of  record  and  one  of  the  hardest  working  of  an  array 
of  counsel  in  the  notable  series  of  cases  known  as  the  St. 
Stephen's  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  cases,  which  involved 
almost  every  phase  of  ecclesiastical  law  relating  to  that  de- 
nomination. These  cases  lasted  from  1890  to  1900  and  were 
regarded  as  of  such  importance  to  the  profession  that  they 
were  collected  and  published  together  in  Abbott's  'New  Cases.' 

"Another  noteworthy  litigation  in  which  Mr.  Shipman  was 
leading  counsel  was  that  of  National  Protective  Association 
V.  Cummings,  in  which  he  maintained  the  right  of  members 
of  one  labor  union  to  work  unmolested  by  members  of  rival 
labor  unions.  That  was  a  case  of  labor  against  labor,  not  one 
of  labor  against  capital ;  the  cause  of  the  litigation  was  that 
there  were  too  many  laborers  in  one  craft — then  a  new  phase 
of  the  complex  labor  situation.  Mr.  Shipman  had  not  hitherto 
been  identified  with  the  laws  relating  to  labor  organizations, 
but  at  the  request  of  an  old-time  client,  who  had  been  wholly 
prevented  from  the  opportunity  to  labor,  he  took  up  the  case 
and  carried  it  through  all  the  Courts  with  the  utmost  industry 
and  ardor.  The  principles  for  which  he  fought  are  now  firmly 
established. 

"Still  another  remarkable  case  in  which  Mr.  Shipman  was 
one  of  the  leading  counsel,  was  the  Hopkins  Will  case,  in 
which  it  was  held  that,  notwithstanding  the  physical  cancel- 
lation of  the  signature  to  a  will  found  in  the  testator's  desk 
(the  cancellation  consising  of  a  number  of  pen  strokes  drawn 
across  the  signature)  the  instrument  was  entitled  to  probate, 
in  the  absence  of  proof  that  the  testator  intended  to  revoke 
the  will. 

"Mr.  Shipman  acted  as  trial  counsel  in  many  other  litiga- 
tions of  importance,  but  he  preferred  constructive  work  in  the 
law  of  real  property,  wills  and  corporations. 

"At  the  time  of  the  St.  Stephen's  cases,  to  which  reference 
has  been  made,  Mr.  Shipman  had  no  thought  that  his  talents 
as  a  lawyer  would  again  be  required  in  the  realms  of  ec- 
clesiastical law,  but  during  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life — 


Iviii  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

without  turning  aside  from  his  daily  practice  in  the  general 
body  of  the  law — he  became  one  of  the  foremost  ecclesiastical 
lawyers  of  the  Catholic  Church,  of  which  he  was  a  member, 
and  the  most  eminent  authority  in  America  on  the  laws  of  the 
Orthodox  Russian  Church.  It  has  been  truly  said  of  him 
since  his  death  that  his  successor  in  this  branch  of  the  law  is 
not  now  to  be  found,  but  must  be  reared.  The  distinction 
thus  acquired  was  by  nightly  study  at  home  for  years  and  by 
study  abroad  in  every  important  library  of  Europe  during 
his  annual  vacations,  when  it  is  safe  to  say  that  he  spent  half 
his  time  in  those  pursuits,  while  the  other  half  was  spent  in 
joyous  recreation — for  he  had  the  heart  of  a  boy,  with  all  his 
wisdom.  It  was  certainly  remarkable  that  one  man,  while 
engaged  in  his  daily  vocation,  and  not  prompted  by  gain,  ac- 
quired distinction  as  the  exponent  of  the  laws  of  three  great 
Churches,  whose  ecclesiastical  constitutions  are  so  different 
one  from  the  other.  That  was  another  characteristic  of  his 
— he  was  so  broad-minded  that  his  thoughts  were  world-wide ; 
everything  in  the  realm  of  learning  was  worth  studying  and 
carrying  into  practical  effect. 

"His  constructive  work  as  a  lawyer  was  never  better  shown 
than  in  the  last  important  labor  of  his  life  in  the  Constitutional 
Convention,  when  as  a  member  of  two  of  the  most  important 
committees  on  the  floor,  he  attended  every  session  and  was 
consulted  by  the  leaders  of  both  parties.  He  proved  himself 
then,  as  always,  a  deep  well  of  learning. 

"No  summary  of  a  lawyer's  life  would  be  worth  the  reading 
if  silent  as  to  his  political  faith,  for  one  fuses  with  the  other. 
Andrew  Jackson  Shipman  was  fitly  named,  for  he  was  a 
staunch  Democrat.  Yet  his  last  act  as  a  Regent  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  State  of  New  York  was  to  nominate  for  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  a  distinguished  Republican.  Mr. 
Shipman  never  sought  a  favor,  political  or  personal,  and, 
therefore,  received  none.  He  held  high  positions  in  the  service 
of  the  State,  but  never  of  his  own  seeking  and  always  without 
emolimient. 

"He  possessed  in  a  marked  degree  personal  modesty  in 
contact  with  his  equals  and  simplicity  with  his  inferiors,  and 
yet  in  the  service  of  a  client  he  was  quick  to  assert  himself 
to  the  highest  degree.  He  shunned  notoriety,  but  was  not 
averse  to  sincere  recognition.     He  had  a  deep-rooted  respect 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 


Hx 


for  the  judiciary  as  a  body  and  was  never  known  to  cavil,  as 
some  do.  He  had  not  only  the  respect  but  the  affection  of 
many  foremost  judges  throughout  the  land,  and  of  the  many 
members  of  the  Bar  with  whom  he  came  in  contact.  He 
harbored  no  ill  will  against  his  adversaries  and  none  was 
ever  heard  to  speak  ill  of  him.  With  him  graciousness  and 
strength  were  ever  combined,  and  so  perfectly  blended  that 
neither  outweighed  the  other.  His  genuine  pleasure  and  ap- 
preciation of  the  success  of  others  was  so  great  that  every 
success  seemed  to  be  his  own.  He  never  turned  a  client  away 
from  his  door  for  need  of  a  fee,  and  yet  he  was  successful 
in  accumulating  a  competence.  He  believed  that,  as  every 
lawyer  received  a  license  to  practice  from  the  State  without 
tax,  he  was  bound  to  render  to  the  State,  through  any  of  its 
needy  citizens,  legal  services  regardless  of  compensation. 

"On  many  other  occasions  and  in  many  ways,  Mr.  Ship- 
man's  virtues,  his  learning,  in  literature  and  languages,  and 
his  public  services  have  been  extolled.  At  this  time  we  speak 
of  the  lawyer  in  the  man.  Throughout  his  professional  life 
his  ideals  and  their  daily  pursuit  were  as  high  and  clean  and 
clear  as  the  day  he  entered  the  profession — a  difficult  life- 
purpose  in  material  days.  He  was  more  than  all  else  a  lawyer, 
learned  in  the  law,  and  from  that  sprang  all  his  opportunities 
and  the  fine  deeds  that  he  achieved  for  himself  and  others  in 
his  eminent  career." 


Notwithstanding  the    fulness   of  his   legal   career  and   its 
many  duties,  Mr.  Shipman  gave  his  time  and  labor  to  many  c, 

enterprises  beyond  professional  limits.     He  was  called  upon       ^  ^^ 
in  many  ways  and  never  failed  to  respond.     Outside  of  his]  J*^,^/* 
professional  life,  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  interest!  ,,;, 
of  the  Slavs  in  the  United  States.     This  work  was  to  him  al  '^ 
constant  pursuit,  and  one  might  say,  a  second  profession.    The 
obscure  assistant-manager  of  the  W.  P.  Rend  Coal  Mines  back 
in  1884  became  in  later  years  in  (New  York  the  legal  advisor, 
counsellor,  friend  and  promoter  of  the  cause  and  welfare  of 
the  Greek  Catholics  in  New  Yorkani,adjacent  States^    In 
1895  he  helped  to  organize,  boTFfHy  his  legal  services  as  an 
attorney  and  by  his  friendly  and  ardent  assistance  as  a  lay- 
man, the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  Church  of  St.  George  on 
East  20th  Street^  New  York  City,  of  which  Rev.  Joseph  Chap- 


Ix  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

linski  was  rector  up  to  1908,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Rev. 
M.  J.  Pidhorecky,  the  present  incumbent.  The  church  was 
afterwards  moved  to  East  Seventh  Street,  between  Second 
and  Third  Avenues.  This  property  was  purchased  for  the 
sum  of  $90,000,  the  entire  transaction  having  been  carried  on 
through  Mr.  Shipman.  At  the  dedication  of  the  new  church  in 
East  Seventh  Street,  October  22,  191 1,  Mr.  Shipman  took  an 
active  interest  and  prepared  and  pubHshed  for  use  at  the 
dedication  services  his  translation  of  "The  Holy  Mass  Ac- 
cording to  the  Greek  Rite,"  a  little  book  of  forty-eight  pages 
in  double  columns,  giving  the  original  Slavic  on  one  side  and 
}his  English  version  on  the  other.  It  was  the  first  time  an 
'English  translation  had  ever  been  ma4^. 

In  1913  when  the  "United  CathoHc  Works,"  an  association 
for  the  closer  organization  and  co-operation  of  all  the  Cath- 
^olic  activities  of  the  Diocese  of  New  York,  was  established, 
Mr.  Shipman  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  bringing  the  various 
Greek  Catholic  Charitable  organizations  into  the  movement, 
'and  in  this  way  demonstrating  to  his  fellow-Catholics  of  the 
Latin  Rite  the  growth  and  zealous  activities  of  their  fellow- 
Catholics  of  the  Greek  Rite. 

Unfortunately  the  line  of  racial  demarcation  only  too  easily 
keeps  people  apart,  who  are  fundamentally  one  in  faith,  though 
divergent  in  customs.     Mr.  Shipman  was  diHgent  in  seeking 
to  bring  his  fellow-Catholics  of  both  rites  to  a  better  under- 
standing and  appreciation  of  each  other,  and  eagerly  seized 
the  opportunity  afforded  by  the  United  Catholic  Works'  move- 
ment.    He  was  equally  solicitous  in  bringing  about  a  better 
understanding  between  the  different  Catholic  nationalities  of 
the  Greek  Rite  in  the  United  States,  who  naturally  clung  to 
their  ancient  European  jealousies  and  divisions.     It  was  his 
constant  advice  to  them  to  sink  their  differences  and  unite  in 
the  broad  and  saner  platform  of  their  common  faith  and  their 
lAmerican  citizenship.     He  realized   fully  that  an  immigrant 
people  could  not  tear  up  by  the  roots  their  racial  traditions 
md  customs,  nor  did  he  wish  them  to  do  so,  for  through 
:hose  roots  comes  the  nourishment  of  sturdy  and  substantial 
virtues.     Let  them  remain  what  they  naturally  are,  for  the 
preservation  of  those  virtues,  but  at  the  same  time  let  them 
assimilate  gradually  the  civic  elements  and  principles  of  their 
lew  allegiance  in  America.    Mr.  Shipman  was  a  man  of  broad 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  Ixi 

sympathies  and  of  keen  appreciation  of  the  real  virtues  of^ 
life.  When  differences  are  essential  to  a  people's  welfare  he 
believed  in  retaining  them,  for  all  people  cannot  be  in  all  re 
spects  alike.  Where  differences  stand  in  the  way  of  growth 
and  development  and  are  in  truth  but  superficial  prejudices  or 
jealousies  based  upon  misunderstanding  and  ignorance  they 
should  be  abolished  with  charitable  tact.  He  himself  con- 
tributed much  in  this  direction.  He  believed  that  if  people,  ^ 
however  diverse  in  origin  and  tradition,  be  brought  to  know  \ 
each  other  by  association  in  a  common  cause,  they  will  not  | 
only  soon  reach  a  mutual  understanding  and  appreciation,  i 
but  a  broad  and  sympathetic  toleration  of  each  other's  differ-  i 
ences.  Such  was  the  spirit  and  aim  of  his  labors  among  the^' 
immigrant  people  of  America. 

His  efforts  were  not  limited  to   the   Slavic  people   in  this 
country.     His  assistance  and  counsel  was  just  as  readily  given 
to  the  Syrian  Catholi£3.     He  helped   them  to   purchase  the 
property    for   their   Church   in   Washington    Street   and   was 
their  constant  advisor.     At  the  time  of  the  dedication  of  their 
Church  of  St.  Joachim  he  brought  a  holy  stone  from  Jerusalem 
for  the  occasion.     Mrs.  Shipman  presented  them  their  altar.  | 
His  interest  was  also  extended  to  the  Italian  Greek  Catholics.; 
In  fact  his  zeal  took  a  wide  range  and  no  one  ever  called  upon '. 
him  for  aid  or  counsel  that  it  was  not   freely  and  readily 
given. 

When  the  late  Bishop  Ortynsky,  the  first  bishop  of  the  Greek 
Rite  in  this  country,  came  to  the  United  States  in  1897,  Mr. 
Shipman  became  his  advisor.  He  drew  up  the  charter  for 
St.  Basil's  Orphanage  in  New  York  and  conducted  all  the 
legal  and  legislative  business  connected  with  it. 

He  took  a  special  interest  in  St.  George's  Church  in  East 
Seventh  Street.  In  a  sense  he  was  the  soul  of  St.  George's 
congregation  and  made  a  special  provision  for  the  church  in 
his  will.  He  devoted  himself  in  the  development  of  the  cele- 
brated Ukrainian  (Ruthenian)  choir  of  St.  George's,  consist- 
ing of  120  members,  and  brought  it  to  public  notice  by  having 
it  give  several  concerts.  How  much  he  accomplished  in  all 
his  activities  for  the  Slavic  and  Greek  peoples  in  this  country 
will  never  be  known,  and  would  require  a  much  more  ex- 
tended elaboration  than  can  be  given  in  this  brief  sketch. 

His  activities  extended  not  only  to  promoting  the  religious 


Ixii  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

welfare  of  the  Catholics  of  the  Greek  Rite  in  the  United 
States,  but  he  was  as  zealous  in  protecting  their  interests 
against  any  movement  that  might  seem  to  jeopardize  them. 
When  the  Russian  Orthodox  Bishop  in  the  United  States 
endeavored  to  get  the  New  York  legislature  to  give  legal 
sanction  to  the  name  "Russian  Greek  Catholic  Church,''  as 
applicable  to  the  Russian  Orthodox  Church,  Mr.  Shipman  suc- 
cessfully opposed  the  measure  as  an  usurpation  of  the  name 
and  as  a  source  of  confusion.  When  one  of  the  Protestant 
denominations  in  New  York  and  in  New  Jersey  made  use 
|of  the  Greek  rite  and  ceremonial  to  proselytize  newly  arrived 
Slavic  Catholics,  Mr.  Shipman  personally  investigated  and 
exposed  the  deception. 

It  was  characteristic  of  him  never  to  take  anything  from 
hearsay  or  at  second  hand.  In  the  above  instance  he  went 
in  person  to  the  chapels  in  question,  and  determined  for  him- 
self the  exact  nature  and  method  of  the  proselytizing  attempt 
and  followed  it  up  by  calling  it  to  the  attention  of  the  authori- 
ties of  the  denomination  under  whose  auspices  the  fraud  was 
being  practised.  He  also  wrote  several  vigorous  letters  to 
the  public  press  protesting  against  the  deception  with  the  result 
of  having  it  discontinued.  He  would  frequently  make  personal 
excursions  into  obscure  and  remote  quarters  of  New  York 
City,  especially  on  the  East  side,  seeking  information  and 
often  forming  in  this  way  valuable  acquaintances  and  friend- 
ships. He  was  prompt  and  diligent  in  following  up  any  hint 
or  clue  relative  to  any  interest  he  might  have  in  hand  and 
never  rested  satisfied  until  he  had  followed  the  trail  to  the 
end ;  he  wanted  to  see  for  himself. 

A  mental  habit  of  this  kind  necessarily  entailed  great  labor 
and  time,  and  he  begrudged  neither.  His  many  voyages  across 
the  ocean  to  gather  first-hand  knowledge  and  to  come  into 
personal  contact  with  the  Slavic  people  of  the  Old  World 
are  evidence  of  his  thoroughgoing  method,  his  untiring  zeal 
and  his  passion  for  getting  at  the  bottom  of  things.  A  typical 
instance  was  his  investigation  of  the  circumstances  of  the 
famous  Ferrer  trial  in  Barcelona,  Spain.  He  happened  to 
be  in  Spain  shortly  after  the  event,  and  visited  Barcelona 
with  the  express  purpose  of  finding  out  on  the  spot  what  had 
happened  before,  during  and  after  the  trial.  He  visited  the 
scenes  of  riot  in  the  city,  interviewed  participators,  both  ag- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  Ixiii 

gressors  and  victims,  witnesses  and  officials,  looked  up  and 
copied  records  and  affidavits,  read  up  the  Spanish  law  both 
civic  and  military,  governing  the  proceedings;  in  short  posted 
himself  completely  and  at  the  source.  The  result  was  several 
illuminating  articles  on  the  subject  published  in  the  "Catholic 
World"  in  1910,  and  an  answer  to  Mr.  Archer,  the  English 
critic,  in  "McClure's  Magazine"  of  the  same  year.  Mr.  Archer 
had  espoused  Ferrer's  cause  but  had  not  dug  down  to  the  facts 
nor  informed  himself  upon  the  Spanish  law  in  the  case,  as 
Mr.  Shipman  had.  Mr.  Archer  wrote  brilliantly  and  rhetor- 
ically, but  Mr.  Shipman  knew  the  case  to  the  roots;  Mr. 
Archer's  glittering  euphemisms  were  stripped  bare  by  Mr. 
Shipman's  trenchant  array  of  the  facts,  which  Mr.  Archer  had 
so  carelessly  neglected. 

In  1913  Mr.  Shipman  was  elected  to  the  Board  of  Regents 
of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York  to  succeed  Mr. 
Eugene  A.  Philbin,  whose  appointment  to  the  Supreme  Court 
of  New  York  State  had  occasioned  a  vacancy.  To  Mr.  Ship- 
man  the  election  was  extremely  gratifying,  as  it  gave  him  i 
the  opportunity  to  enter  upon  a  work  especially  congenial 
and  for  which  he  was  eminently  fitted  both  by  temperament 
and  training,  and  as  a  man  of  large  public  spirit  always  eager 
to  serve  the  community  to  the  utmost  of  his  ability.  He 
regarded  it  as  a  crowning  public  honor  to  his  career  and  the 
fulfilment  of  his  public  ambition.  How  well  he  performed 
the  duties  of  his  position  and  how  valuable  were  his  services 
as  a  Regent  is  amply  shown  in  the  Memorial  adopted  by  the 
Board  of  Regents  and  the  Commemorative  Addresses  at  the 
University  Convocation  of  1915,  published  in  this  volume. 

As  a  director  of  the  company  which  has  published  the 
Catholic  Encyclopedia,  not  only  was  he  prompt  and  diligent 
in  the  ordinary  duties  of  his  office,  but  he  was  especially  con- 
sulted and  took  part  in  all  important  matters  outside  the 
usual  routine  of  business.  His  wisdom  was  always  clear 
and  practical  and  he  spared  no  pains  to  give  the  company 
of  his  best.  A  number  of  the  articles  in  the  Encyclopedia! 
are  from  his  pen,  and  his  advice  was  constantly  sought  by 
the  Editors,  particularly  upon  such  subjects  as  pertained  to 
his  chosen  field  or  were  cognate.  His  name  should  be  in- 
separably connected  with  the  Encyclopedia,  in  the  making  of 
which  he  played  no  small  part. 


Ixiv  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

In  1915  he  was  elected  from  the  Nineteenth  Senatorial  dis- 
trict as  Delegate  to  the  New  York  Constitutional  Convention, 
which  convened  in  Albany  during  the  summer  of  the  same 
year.  It  was  a  hot  and  trying  season.  Mr.  Shipman  spent 
the  entire  time  in  Albany  applying  himself  to  the  work  of 
the  Convention  with  his  customary  intensity  and  energy.  He 
in  fact  exhausted  himself  with  his  devotion  and  zeal  in  this 
public  service,  and  returned  to  New  York  depleted  physically 
from  his  labors.  The  heavy  strain  upon  his  energies  entailed 
by  the  work  of  the  Convention  was  without  doubt  the  founda- 
tion of  his  last  illness.  Upon  his  return  to  New  York  City, 
he  sought  to  resume  his  professional  and  other  duties,  but 
found  the  task  beyond  his  strength.  He  died  on  Sunday,  Oc- 
tober 17,  at  his  home  in  New  York  City  from  an  acute  at- 
tack of  Bright's  Disease.  His  funeral  took  place  on  Wednes- 
day, October  20,  from  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New  York 
City,  and  was  attended  by  people  of  prominence  from  all  walks 
of  life,  as  well  as  by  the  representatives  of  the  many  char- 
itable, fraternal  and  social  organizations  with  which  he  had 
been  affiliated.  After  the  solemn  requiem  Mass,  a  burial 
.service  according  to  the  Greek  Rite  was  conducted  over  the 
bier  by  the  Right  Reverend  Stephen  Ortynsky,  bishop  of  all 
the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  in  the  United  States,  attended 
by  a  number  of  Greek  Ruthenian  and  Maronite  priests.  Mem- 
bers of  the  Ukrainian  choir  chanted  the  music  of  the  service. 
This  was  the  first  time  the  burial  service  according  to  the 
Greek  Catholic  Rite  was  ever  seen  in  a  church  of  the  Latin 
Rite  in  the  United  States. 

The  variety  and  scope  of  Mr.  Shipman's  writings  as  pub- 
lished in  this  volume  speak  for  themselves.  He  was  a  busy 
man,  but  like  all  busy  men,  always  found  time  for  additional 
tasks.  He  was  called  upon  frequently  and  never  refused  to 
respond  to  a  worthy  cause  or  to  an  occasion  where  it  seemed 
to  him  that  he  might  do  good.  He  was  a  member  of  some 
twenty-two  different  organizations,  charitable,  social,  fraternal 
or  religious,  and  was  active  in  nearly  all  of  them.^     He  was 

1  He  was  a  member  of  the  Catholic  Club,  Southern  Society,  American  Bar 
Association,  New  York  State  Bar  Association.  New  York  Ccuintv  Lawyers'  Associa- 
tion, American  Society  of  International  Law,  American  Geographic  Society, 
Friendly  Sons  of  St.  Patrick,  a  number  of  local  Church  and  civic  organizations 
and  the  sole  honorary  member  of  St.  George's  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  Benevolent 
Association. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  Ixv 

an  excellent  linguist,  speaking  no  less  than  thirt^enlanguages. 
He  was  a  devoted  husband,  having  married  in  1893MTSS  Adair 
Mooney,  the  sister  of  his  law  partner,  Mr.  Edmund 
Mooney.  Mrs.  Shipman  was  a  most  sympathetic  and  devoted 
helper  in  all  his  work.  He  was  a  public-spirited  citizen  who 
responded  eagerly  and  practically  to  any  civic  cause  or  move- 
ment of  merit.  His  services  to  the  State  as  Regent  and  as 
delegate  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  bear  ample  testi- 
mony to  his  disinterested  and  practical  public  spirit. 

Much  is  said  in  these  days  about  a  lay  apostolate.  Mr. 
Shipman  exemplified  it  in  many  ways.  He  was  in  fact  one 
of  its  pioneers,  of  large  example  and  fruitful  results.  His  gen- 
erous and  large  nature  saw  things  in  a  generous  and  large 
way.  He  was  above  all  things  a  giver  and  his  gift  was  entire ; 
he  withheld  nothing.  A  lay  apostolate  is  the  recognized  need 
of  the  hour.  It  is  the  layman  who  comes  into  constant  and 
intimate  contact  with  the  world,  and  upon  his  shoulders  falls 
the  urgent  obligation  of  an  apostolate  for  the  Faith  before 
the  world.  Andrew  Shipman  realized  all  this  even  to  a  scru- 
pulous delicacy  of  conscience,  and  he  fulfilled  it  ably  and  nobly, 
a  Catholic  layman  without  fear  and  without  reproach,  a  son 
who  proved  to  the  world  an  illustrious  example  of  the  teach- 
ings and  principle  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

CoNDE  B.  Fallen. 


We  live  in  deeds,  not  years ;  in  thoughts,  not  breaths ; 
In  feelings,  not  in  figures  on  a  dial. 
We  should  count  time  by  heart-throbs.    He  most  lives 
Who  thinks  most,  feels  the  noblest,  acts  the  best; 
Life's  but  a  means  unto  an  end ;  that  end 
Beginning,  mean,  and  end  to  all  things — God. 

Philip  James  Bailey. 


SPANISH   ARTICLES 


SPAIN  OF  TO-DAY 

I. — The  Country  at  Large 

THE  newspapers  have  been  teeming  with  news  from 
Spain  regarding  the  present  crisis;  but  very  few  facts 
have  been  given  their  readers  upon  which  to  base  any 
adequate  view  of  events.  Even  as  I  write,  there  are  rumors 
of  civil  war.  Vague  statements  are  made  without  names,  dates, 
or  places  that  the  clergy  are  fomenting  it.  The  Catholic  com- 
mittees have  abstained  from  their  projected  protest  against  the 
present  policy  of  the  government,  and  that  alone,  irrespective 
of  whether  troops  were  massed  or  Radical  counter-demonstra- 
tions were  planned,  shows  that  they  have  no  desire  to  involve 
their  country  in  insurrection  or  war.  We  have  been  regaled 
ad  libitum  through  the  press  with  extracts  from  the  speeches 
of  Liberal  and  Republican,  and  even  of  Socialistic  leaders,  but 
not  a  word  has  been  said  of  the  speeches,  in  reply,  of  La 
Cierva,  Dalmacio  Iglesias,  Urguijo,  and  others,  quite  as  notable 
in  their  way  from  the  Conservative  standpoint.  This  is  not  an 
entirely  fair  attitude  for  the  American  press ;  it  ought  to  tell 
both  sides  of  the  story. 

Spain  is  an  intensely  Catholic  country,  with  Catholic  tradi- 
tions and  Catholic  prejudices  running  back  to  the  earliest  ages. 
The  Spaniards  still  have  much  of  the  Goth  in  them,  much  of 
the  old  inflexible  spirit  which  drove  out  the  Moor  and  pro- 
tected all  Europe  from  the  Moslem.  Spain  was  at  one  time 
the  greatest  country  in  the  world,  an  empire  vaster  than  that 
of  ancient  Rome.  People  are  apt  to  forget  this.  The  old, 
proud  spirit  that  brooked  no  contradiction  and  knew  no  com- 
promise, still  dominates  the  people,  although  they  are  fallen 
from  their  high  estate  as  rulers  of  the  world.  Kings  like 
Charles  V  and  Philip  II,  with  their  strong  centralizing  ten- 
dencies, enhanced  the  natural  national  disposition  to  inflexibility 
of  character,  while  lesser  men,  following  the  line  of  their  poli- 
cies, confirmed  and  fixed  it.  We  who  judge  Spain  as  a  whole 
must  take  into  consideration  this  inheritance  of  history  and 


2  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

tradition  which  helps  to  make  nationality  and  pride  of  race. 
Then,  too,  Spain  is  a  poor  country.  It  has  been  devastated 
by  the  English  and  the  French,  and  has  had  civil  wars  of  its 
own.  All  this  tends  to  make  the  Spaniards,  somewhat  like  our 
proud  Southern  famihes  after  the  Civil  War,  sensitively  self- 
centered  and  averse  from  dealing  with  those  who  inflicted  so 
much  injury  upon  their  native  country. 

Spain  is  a  constitutional  monarchy  with  a  written  Constitu- 
tion, adopted  in  1876,  very  similar  to  our  own  Constitution  in 
its  general  provisions,  and  quite  the  equal  of  any  of  the  Con- 
stitutions of  modern  states.  It  embodies  all  the  best  principles 
of  the  previous  Spanish  Constitutions,  together  with  matters 
considered  fundamental  in  a  modern  state,  such  as  a  bill  of 
rights.  To  Americans,  in  comparison  with  our  own  Consti- 
tution, it  seems  to  be  defective  chiefly  in  its  insufficient  checks 
to  protect  the  invasion  of  individual  and  property  rights,  as 
we  understand  them.  The  Constitution  is  interpreted  naturally 
according  to  the  habits,  usages,  and  predilections  of  old  Spain, 
and  its  shortcomings  must  be  attributed  to  those  ingrained 
ideas  rather  than  to  the  instrument  itself.  But  it  is  a  strong, 
liberal,  and  far-sighted  document,  ranking  with  the  funda- 
mental law  of  any  modern  state. 

The  executive  power  under  the  Constitution  rests  in  the 
King,  while  the  law-making  power  is  vested  in  the  Cortes,  or 
Parliament,  and  the  King.  The  Cortes  is  composed  of  two 
houses,  the  Senate  and  the  Congress,  equal  in  authority  and 
law-making  initiative.  The  ministry  or  cabinet  may  be  chosen 
from  either  house,  and  the  ministers  may  speak  in  debate  in 
either  house,  but  may  vote  only  in  the  house  to  which  they 
belong.  The  Constitution  provides  that  the  King  is  inviolable, 
but  his  ministers  are  responsible,  and  all  his  decrees  must  be 
countersigned  by  one  of  them.  The  Senate  is  composed  of 
360  Senators  divided  into  three  classes :  Senators  in  their  own 
right,  that  is,  sons  of  the  King,  other  than  the  Prince  of  As- 
turias,  sons  of  the  successor  to  the  throne,  certain  grandees 
of  Spain,  Captains-General,  Presidents  of  the  Supreme  Coun- 
cils, and  all  the  Archbishops;  Senators  for  life  (vitalicios) , 
nominated  by  the  Crown,  who,  together  with  the  preceding 
class,  cannot  exceed  180  in  number;  the  remainder  are  Sen- 
ators elected  for  ten  years  by  the  corporations  of  the  State, 
that  is,  the  Universities,  Communal  and  Provincial  Assemblies, 


SPAIN  OF  TO-DAY  3 

various  corporate  churches,  and  certain  commercial  bodies.  To 
be  either  a  vitalicio,  or  elected  Senator,  the  candidate  must 
have  already  been  a  President  of  Congress  (Speaker),  or  a 
deputy  who  has  sat  for  three  consecutive  Parliaments  or  eight 
independent  ones.  Former  ministers  of  the  Crown,  bishops, 
grandees  of  Spain,  lieutenant-generals  of  the  army  or  vice-ad- 
mirals of  the  navy  who  have  served  more  than  two  years,  am- 
bassadors or  ministers  who  have  served  five  years,  directors  of 
the  various  Spanish  National  Academies,  and  certain  others 
who  have  served  in  various  capacities  are  also  eligible.  The 
lower  house  or  Congress  of  Deputies  is  elected  by  universal 
suffrage  upon  the  basis  of  one  deputy  for  every  50,000  of 
population  throughout  the  kingdom.  The  qualification  is  that 
they  must  be  Spanish  and  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  they 
are  elected  for  a  term  of  five  years.  The  Cortes  may  be  dis- 
solved by  the  King  at  any  time  upon  resignation  of  the  minis- 
try, as  in  the  English  Parliament.  According  to  the  law  of 
1890  every  male  Spaniard,  twenty-five  years  of  age,  who  has 
been  a  citizen  of  a  municipality  for  two  years,  has  the  right  to 
vote.  Neither  deputies  nor  senators  are  paid  for  their  services, 
and  cannot  hold  other  office,  except  in  the  cabinet  ministry. 
There  are  at  present  406  deputies  in  Congress. 

Besides  this  central  government  Spain  has  also  local  self- 
government.  Trouble  is  often  caused  by  a  clash  between 
the  central  and  local  governments.  Spain  has  forty-nine 
provinces,  or,  as  we  would  call  them,  states ;  and  each  prov- 
ince has  its  individual  parliament  and  local  government. 
The  provincial  parliament  or  legislature  is  called  the  "Dipu- 
tacion  Provincial,''  the  members  of  which  are  elected  by  con- 
stituencies. These  "Diputaciones  Provinciales"  meet  in  annual 
session,  and  the  local  government  is  carried  on  by  the  "Comi- 
sion  Provincial,"  a  committee  elected  by  the  legislature.  Thus 
we  see  the  government  by  commission  is  quite  usual  in  Spain, 
although  it  is  being  heralded  as  a  novelty  in  the  government  of 
cities  in  the  United  States.  Neither  the  national  executive  nor 
the  Cortes  has  the  right  to  interfere  in  the  established  provin- 
cial or  municipal  administration,  except  to  annul  such  acts  as 
lie  outside  the  sphere  of  such  administration,  a  system  analo- 
gous to  our  State  and  Federal  jurisdictions.  The  municipal  gov- 
ernment is  provided  for  by  a  duly  elected  Ayuntatniento,  corre- 
sponding to  our  aldermen  or  board  of  supervisors,  which  con- 


4  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

sists  of  from  five  to  thirty-nine  regidores  (supervisors)  or  con- 
cejales  (aldermen),  according  to  the  size  of  the  municipality, 
and  by  an  Alcalde  (mayor)  who  in  large  places  has  one  or  two 
Tenientes  Alcaldes  (vice-mayors).  The  entire  municipal  gov- 
ernment, with  power  of  taxation,  is  vested  in  the  Ayuntamien- 
tos.  Half  of  their  members  are  elected  every  two  years,  and 
they  in  turn  elect  the  Alcalde  from  their  own  body.  Thus  it 
may  be  seen  that  Spain  has  a  pretty  fair  local  self-government, 
one  which  would  be  completely  effective  were  it  not  that  pres- 
sure is  frequently  brought  to  bear  upon  the  local  elections 
by  the  central  government,  conditions  which  are  not  wholly 
unknown  in  the  United  States. 

Spain  is  chiefly  an  agricultural  country  and  has  no  largely 
populated  cities  or  industrial  centres.  The  total  population 
in  1900  was  9,087,821  males  and  9,530,265  females,  making  a 
total  of  18.618,086.  The  estimated  population  on  January  i, 
1909,  was  19,712,285.  The  largest  cities  in  Spain  are  Madrid 
and  Barcelona ;  the  former  with  539,835,  and  the  latter  with 
533,100  inhabitants.  Valencia  follows  with  213,530,  and  Se- 
ville with  168,315.  Two  other  cities,  Malaga  and  Murcia,  have 
over  100,000  inhabitants.  It  is  in  the  cities  of  Spain  that  the 
modern  radical,  socialistic,  and  revolutionary  elements  are  to 
be  found,  and  not  among  the  great  mass  of  people  in  the 
country. 

It  is  difficult  to  explain  the  politics  of  Spain  to  the  outsider, 
one  may  live  long  in  Spain  before  they  are  fully  grasped. 
They  are  somewhat  on  the  group  system ;  one  or  two  ideas  in 
common  for  a  particular  purpose,  rather  than  broad  platforms 
of  action  such  as  our  great  parties  use.  First  of  all  there  is 
the  Conservative  party,  now  out  of  power  and  filling  the  place 
of  the  Opposition  in  the  Spanish  Parliament.  It  stands  for  the 
old  order  of  things  in  general,  the  "make  haste  slowly"  prin- 
ciple ;  its  adherents  are  of  various  shades  of  opinion.  The 
majority  of  them  are  heart  and  soul  for  the  present  monarchy 
and  for  a  Constitutional  Spain.  Others  are  Carlists  and  hark 
back  to  the  older  regime :  others  still  want  to  see  no  change 
whatever — they  are  the  "stand-patters"  of  the  party.  Others 
are  strong  clericals  and  see  in  any  change  an  attack  upon  the 
vested  rights  of  the  Church.  This  party  was  in  power  for  eight 
years  and  accomplished  much — much  more  proportionately 
than  its  successor  seems  capable  of  doing.    It  passed  the  laws 


SPAIN  OF  TO-DAY  5 

of  Electoral  Reform,  giving  Spain  manhood  suffrage;  and  it 
passed  the  laws  of  Local  Government,  providing  a  larger  meas- 
ure of  autonomy  for  the  cities  and  provinces  of  Spain  than 
they  ever  before  enjoyed.  The  second  large  division  is  the 
Liberal  party,  which  believes  in  developing  Spain  to  the  ex- 
treme limits  of  pure  Constitutionalism  without  actually  de- 
stroying the  Monarchical  institution,  no  matter  what  interests 
may  suffer.  The  majority  of  its  adherents  are  strictly  consti- 
tutional and  devoted  to  tht  monarchy.  They  are  too  fond, 
however,  of  adopting  foreign  ideas  and  foreign  experiments 
in  government,  regardless  of  whether  they  are  suited  to  the 
genius  and  temperament  of  the  Spanish  people  or  not.  They 
want  the  broadest  measure  of  modern  political  invention, 
whether  Spain  is  ready  for  it  or  not.  Then  comes  the  Republi- 
can party,  which  may  be  described  as  being  in  the  same  relation 
(in  the  inverse  order)  to  the  Liberals  as  the  Cadists  are  to 
the  Conservatives.  They  are  anti-constitutional  and  anti- 
monarchical.  They  want  a  republic  in  Spain  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, and  unfortunately  they  have  fixed  on  France  as  their 
model,  instead  of  taking,  say,  the  United  States  or  Switzer- 
land. They  follow  the  Radicals,  who  are  the  apostles  of  dis- 
content, and  whose  members  are  of  all  shades  of  opinion, 
theorists,  socialists,  and  some  even  of  the  ''white  glove,"  or 
philosophical  school  of  anarchy.  They  are  the  preachers  of 
political  discontent,  and  are  such  energetic  reformers  that 
they  are  prepared  to  tear  down  everything  and  build  entirely 
anew.  They  are  divided  into  various  groups,  such  as,  Region- 
alists,  Independents,  etc. 

The  Church  is  the  oldest  institution  in  Spain.  Its  charter 
and  inherited  rights  go  back  further  than  the  present  Constitu- 
tion, the  present  reigning  house,  or  its  predecessor,  back  to  the 
time  before  Spain  became  a  united  kingdom  under  the  Cath- 
olic kings,  when  the  Moslem  was  driven  from  Spanish  soil. 
Its  history  is  the  history  of  Spain,  and  it  is  the  one  enduring 
monument  which  Spain  has  to  tell  of  its  struggles  and  pro- 
gress. In  the  mind  of  the  Spaniard  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  disassociate  the  Church  from  Spain  itself,  they  are  one  and 
indissoluble.  It  is  this  viewpoint  that  makes  much  of  the 
present  situation  in  Spain  incomprehensible  to  the  outsider. 
One  might  as  well  try  to  separate  his  family  identity  from 


6  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

his  personal  identity ;  to  the  average  Spanish  mind  it  is  un- 
thinkable. 

At  present  the  Church  is  composed  of  nine  archbishoprics  or 
provinces,  with  forty-seven  suffragan  bishoprics  or  dioceses. 
The  Archbishop  of  Toledo  is  the  Primate  of  all  Spain,  and 
Patriarch  of  the  Indies.  There  are  in  all  Spain  some  17,369 
organized  parishes,  having  22,558  churches  and  7,568  chapels, 
which  are  served  by  33.303  priests.  As  a  whole  the  figures  do 
not  show  that  Spain  is  abnormally  overcrowded  with  priests, 
although  in  some  of  the  dioceses  the  dwindling  of  population 
within  the  last  century  has  left  them  supplied  with  more 
churches  and  clergy  than  possibly  they  need  at  the  present 
day.  On  the  other  hand,  many  places  in  Spain  show  that  the 
Church  is  under-equipped  with  clergy.  Nearly  the  entire  popu- 
lation is  Catholic.  There  were  in  1900  some  213,000  foreign- 
ers in  Spain  whose  religious  affiliations  were  not  counted, 
some  7,500  Protestants,  4,500  Jews,  and  from  18,000  to  20,000 
Rationalists,  Indifferentists,  and  others.  This  is  as  near  as 
the  census  can  inform  us. 

The  Constitution  requires  the  nation  to  support  the  clergy 
and  maintain  the  buildings  and  equipment  of  the  Church  for 
public  worship,  as  especially  regulated  by  the  Concordat,  which 
will  be  mentioned  later.  This,  it  must  be  understood,  is  not 
liberality  on  the  part  of  the  State,  although  the  present  genera- 
tion is  trying  to  give  it  that  aspect,  but  is  merely  a  return  of 
part  of  the  fruits  from  the  estates  and  property  of  the  Church 
which  were  seized  by  the  State  under  various  pretexts  during 
the  past.  It  is  an  indemnity  rather  than  a  grace.  The  esti- 
mate of  expenditure  in  this  regard  for  the  year  1910  was  41,- 
337,013  pesetas,  or  about  ^8,267,000,  which  was  about  the 
same  as  for  the  year  1909.  This  sum  looks  magnificent  when 
it  is  viewed  as  a  whole,  and  no  account  is  taken  of  its  actual 
application.  Some  persons  reading  hastily  the  figures  as  given 
in  the  daily  newspapers  get  an  idea  that  the  clergy  receive  the 
whole  of  it.  But  that  is  far  from  being  the  case.  In  the  first 
place  the  appropriation  is  used  to  run  the  Ministry  of  Wor- 
ship :  to  pay  the  salaries  of  the  minister,  his  assistants,  and 
all  the  clerks,  employees,  and  the  cost  of  the  statistical  and 
administrative  work. 

In  the  second  place  the  fabric  of  the  cathedrals  and  churches 
must  be  kept  up  out  of  this  sum.     Most  of  the  cathedrals  in 


SPAIN  OF  TO-DAY  7 

Spain  are  national  monuments  and  are  more  or  less  in  need 
of  repair.  Those  who  have  seen  the  Cathedral  of  Barcelona, 
with  the  scaffolding  around  its  towers,  or  the  Cathedral  of 
Seville,  with  the  extensive  works  in  the  courtyard  extending 
along  the  northern  side,  will  understand  this.  When  one  con- 
siders the  number  of  beautiful  cathedrals,  churches,  abbeys, 
and  church  buildings  in  Spain,  models  of  Gothic  architecture 
to  be  kept  in  good  condition  or  restored,  one  realizes  the 
amount  of  expenditure  required.  Then  come  the  actual  sal- 
aries of  the  clergy.  They  are  certainly  not  extravagant.  The 
Primate,  the  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  receives  $7,500  an- 
nually; the  Archbishops  of  Seville  and  Valencia,  $7,000 
each ;  the  other  archbishops,  $6,500  each ;  two  bishops,  Barce- 
lona and  Madrid,  $5,400  each ;  four  bishops,  Cadiz,  Cartagena, 
Cordoba,  and  Malaga,  $5,000  eacii ;  twenty-two  bishops,  $4,300 
each ;  and  the  remaining  bishops  not  quite  $4,000  each.  Deans 
and  archdeacons  receive  from  $900  to  $1,000  each;  regular 
canons,  $800,  and  beneficed  canons  from  $350  to  $700;  while 
parish  priests  in  the  cities  receive  from  $300  to  $500,  and  those 
in  the  country  from  $150  up.  Assistant  priests  receive  from 
$100  to  $200  annually.  Truly  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  a  wildly 
extravagant  rate  of  pay ;  and  it  needs  the  usual  stole  fees,  such 
as  weddings,  ceremonial  baptisms,  and  the  like,  to  eke  out  the 
income.  The  specific  appropriations  for  the  maintenance  of 
worship  and  ordinary  care  and  cleanliness  of  the  churches  are 
as  follows :  each  metropolitan  cathedral,  $4,500 ;  each  suffra- 
gan cathedral,  $3,500;  and  each  collegiate  church,  from  $1,000 
to  $1,500;  while  parish  churches  get  an  allowance  proportioned 
to  their  importance  from  a  minimum  of  $50  up.  Besides  this, 
diocesan  seminaries  receive  an  allowance  of  from  $4,500  to 
$6,000  each  for  the  instruction  and  maintenance  of  candi- 
dates for  the  priesthood.  From  these  figures  one  can  get  a 
very  fair  idea  of  how  church  expenditure  in  Spain  is  ap- 
portioned. 

Besides  the  parochial,  secular  clergy  just  mentioned  there 
are  several  religious  orders  in  Spain.  The  ordinary  newspa- 
pers, in  reporting  this  fact,  run  them  up  into  high  figures 
which  is  the  veriest  nonsense.  What  they  mean,  when  they 
speak  of  religious  orders,  are  religious  houses  or  separate 
communities,  and  even  these  numbers  they  exaggerate.  In 
1909  there  were  597  religious  houses  or  communities  of  men 


8  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

containing  12,142  members,  which  were  devoted  as  follows: 
294  to  education ;  92  to  training  of  missionaries ;  97  to  educa- 
tion of  priests ;  62  to  manual  training  for  young  men  and  the 
sale  of  their  products :  and  52  to  monastic  and  contemplative 
life.  There  were  2,656  communities  of  women,  having  42,596 
members,  divided  as  follows:  910  for  education;  1,029  fo^ 
hospital  work  and  charity;  717  for  a  contemplative  life.  Some 
of  these  religious  communities  have  taken  up  some  sections  of 
the  most  desolate  and  wild  lands  in  Catalonia  and  the  north, 
lands  which  had  never  been  profitable  or  even  cultivated,  and 
erected  monasteries  there  after  the  manner  of  the  Middle  Ages 
or  of  our  energetic  missionaries  in  the  Far  West. 

Education  in  Spain  is  not,  of  course,  as  far  advanced  as  it 
is  in  the  United  States,  or  in  Germany,  or  France.  In  a 
great  measure  this  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  great 
majority  of  the  Spanish  population  is  rural.  All  sorts  of  mis- 
leading information  about  education  and  illiteracy  in  Spain 
has  been  given  in  our  daily  and  weekly  press,  as  well  as  in 
some  leading  magazines.  Some  of  them  have  said  that  there 
was  75  per  cent  of  illiteracy  in  Spain ;  but  these  figures  were 
taken  from  the  census  of  i860.  Others  have  said  that  68  per 
cent  of  the  people  were  illiterate ;  but  that  was  taken  from  the 
census  of  1880.  The  trouble  with  these  writers  is  that  they 
utilized  the  handiest  encyclopedia  they  could  find,  no  matter 
what  its  date  was,  instead  of  obtaining  the  latest  available 
figures.  The  census  of  1910  is  not  yet  computed,  but  the 
figures  for  1900  gave  25,340  public  schools  with  1,617,314 
pupils,  and  6,181  private  schools  with  344,380  pupils,  making 
a  total  of  31,521  schools  with  1.961,694  pupils.  One-ninth  of 
a  population  of  18,500,000  is  certainly  not  a  bad  showing.  In 
1900  the  central  government  at  Madrid  spent  $9,500,000  on 
education,  and  the  local  governments  about  three  to  four  times 
as  much  more.  In  1910  the  governmental  budget  for  educa- 
tion was  53,522,408  pesetas,  or  about  $10,710,000.  In  1900 
the  illiterates  of  Spain  amounted  to  less  than  30  per  cent,  or 
to  be  exact  2,603,753  niales  and  2,686,615  females,  making  a 
total  of  5,290,368  persons.  I  am  informed  that  the  age  in 
Spain  at  which  illiterates  are  counted  is  nine  years,  but  these 
illiterates  were  for  the  most  part  persons  from  maturity  to 
old  age. 

The  pay  of  a  school  teacher  is  never  magnificent  in  any 


SPAIN  OF  TO-DAY  9 

country.  The  close-fisted,  hard-headed  Spanish  peasant  has 
old-fashioned  notions  about  the  necessity  of  reading  and  writ- 
ing, and  will  not  tax  himself  to  maintain  schools,  and  still 
less  to  pay  large  salaries  to  teachers,  especially  in  the  primary 
grades.  For  this  reason  teaching  in  Spain  is  not  an  attractive 
profession,  and  arouses  no  enthusiasm  outside  the  large  cities. 
The  subjects  usually  taught  in  the  primary  schools  are:  Chris- 
tian Doctrine.  Spanish  language,  reading,  writing,  grammar, 
arithmetic,  geography  and  history,  drawing,  singing,  manual 
training,  and  bodily  exercises.  In  city  schools  the  elementary 
notions  of  geometry,  physical  science,  chemistry,  and  physi- 
ology are  taught. 

The  teacher  of  the  lowest  primary  grade  in  a  country  school 
begins  with  the  magnificent  salary  of  500  pesetas,  or  $100  a 
year.  He  can  be  advanced  by  gradations  of  200  pesetas,  until 
he  receives  1,500  pesetas;  after  that  the  places  are  all  subject 
to  competitive  examination  (oposicion).  The  highest  places 
are  in  Madrid  and  Barcelona,  where  the  best-paid  teachers  get 
1,500  pesetas,  or  $500.  Secondary  education  is  provided  by 
what  are  called  institiitos,  analogous  to  our  high  schools.  To 
enter  children  must  be  at  least  eleven  years  of  age  and  pass  an 
entrance  examination.  These  institutos  have  a  five  to  six 
years'  course,  and  are  expected  to  prepare  for  an  elementary, 
professional,  or  a  university  course.  Then  come  the  normal 
schools,  the  professional  schools,  and  the  nine  universities.  The 
number  of  university  students  in  1907  was  16,500.  The  educa- 
tion of  women  is  also  progressing.  In  1907  twenty- two  women 
students  passed  through  the  universities ;  in  the  same  year  1,076 
women  passed  through  the  school  of  arts  and  industries ;  and 
in  1908  this  number  rose  to  1,315.  In  the  normal  schools  in 
1907  some  2,241  schoolmistresses  graduated;  in  1908  there 
were  3,584  women  on  the  list.  These  refer  wholly  to  the  gov- 
ernmental public  schools.  Besides  these,  there  are  the  pri- 
vate schools,  managed  in  part  by  religious  congregations,  and 
in  part  by  laymen  (both  Catholic  and  otherwise)  concerning 
which  I  have  no  adequate  figures  as  to  salaries  and  service. 

Spain  is  a  nation  of  small  holders  of  real  property,  and  has 
but  comparatively  few  holders  of  large  estates.  Perhaps  to 
this  is  due  in  a  measure  its  poverty,  for  it  is  the  small  land- 
owners rather  than  the  manufacturer  or  trader  who  predomi- 
nates.   Oi  the  3,426,083  recorded  assessments  to  the  real  prop- 


10  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

erty  tax,  there  were  624,920  properties  which  paid  a  tax  of 
from  I  to  10  reales  (5  to  50  cents),  511,666  from  10  to  20 
reales,  624,377  from  20  to  40  reales,  788,184  from  40  to  100 
reales,  416,546  from  100  to  200  reales,  165,202  from  200  to  500 
reales  ($10  to  $25)  ;  while  the  rest,  to  the  number  of  279,188, 
are  larger  estates  which  pay  from  500  to  10,000  reales,  and  a 
few  upwards.  About  80  per  cent  of  the  soil  is  classed  as  pro- 
ductive. In  minerals  Spain  is  very  rich,  being  the  largest  pro- 
ducer of  copper  in  the  world  after  the  United  States,  while 
mercury,  iron  and  zinc  are  largely  produced,  but  the  mines 
are  said  to  be  inadequately  worked.  The  railway  communi- 
cation comprises  9.025  miles  of  rail,  nearly  all  single  track, 
except  near  Madrid  and  Barcelona. 


II. — The  Present  Situation 

At  the  present  moment  there  is  a  report  of  a  threatened 
break  between  Spain  and  the  Holy  See,  and  all  sorts  of  rumors 
are  being  printed  about  it.  It  derives  from  an  attempt  at  a 
revision  of  the  Concordat  at  present  existing  between  Spain 
and  the  Holy  See.  which  is  complicated  by  the  repeal  of  an 
existing  law  and  the  introduction  of  two  new  ones  into  the 
Cortes  whilst  negotiations  are  pending.  The  present  Con- 
gress, or  lower  house  of  the  Cortes,  is  composed  of  229  Lib- 
erals, 106  Conservatives,  40  Republicans,  9  Carlists  and  20 
other  members  of  the  Integrist,  Regionalist,  Independent,  and 
Socialist  groups.  The  Liberals  have  a  clear  majority  of  54 
votes  over  all  the  other  parties  combined.  The  Senate,  how- 
ever, leans  more  towards  the  Conservative  party.  After  all 
the  seats  had  been  filled  in  the  late  election  and  by  appoint- 
ment, the  Senate  stood  178  Ministerialists,  117  Conservatists,  6 
Carlists,  5  Republicans,  29  Indefinites,  and  17  Prelates,  with 
nine  others,  Regionalists  and  Palatines.  The  present  Prime 
Minister  of  Spain,  or  Presidente  del  Consejo,  is  Don  Jose 
Canalejas  y  Mendez,  probably  the  strongest  Liberal  in  Spain. 
He  certainly  is  the  strongest  and  most  effective  public  speaker 
and  knows  how  to  turn  his  sentences  in  a  way  that  even  his 
enemies  must  admire.  In  Spain  they  use  the  bull-rings  on 
off-days  in  which  to  hold  their  political  meetings,  and  they 
serve  the  purpose  excellently.     At  one  of  his  latest  addresses 


SPAIN  OF  TO-DAY  ii 

to  his  followers  Canalejas  spoke  so  forcibly  and  roused  them 
up  so  thoroughly  that  at  the  conclusion  they  tore  up  the  seats 
of  the  amphitheatre  and  threw  them  into  the  ring. 

While  undertaking  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  the  Holy 
See  for  a  revision  of  the  Concordat,  Senor  Canalejas,  during 
the  pendency  of  negotiations  at  Rome,  promulgated  a  Royal 
Order,  which  completely  changed  the  interpretation  of  the 
Constitution  in  regard  to  non-Catholic  bodies,  and  introduced 
into  the  Cortes  two  measures,  nicknamed  the  "lock-out"  (can- 
dado)  in  the  Spanish  papers,  looking  towards  the  diminution 
or  suppression  of  religious  orders  and  houses  in  Spain.  The 
Holy  See  replied  that  it  was  scarcely  the  proper  way  to  carry 
on  negotiations  for  one  party  to  put  his  purpose  into  execu- 
tion and  talk  revision  afterwards.  A  few  words  upon  the 
Constitution  and  the  Concordat  will  explain  the  situation. 

There  have  been  several  Concordats  between  Spain  and  the 
Holy  See,  later  ones  superseding  the  others.  The  present 
Concordat  was  entered  into  on  March  i6,  1851,  and  a  supple- 
ment was  added  on  August  25,  1859.  There  have  also  been  a 
number  of  Constitutions  adopted  in  Spain.  The  present  Con- 
stitution was  adopted  June  30,  1876,  whose  general  provisions 
have  already  been  described.  The  portion  of  the  Constitution 
principally  bearing  on  the  present  situation  reads  as  follows  : 

Article  XI.  The  Apostolic  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  the 
religion  of  the  State.  The  nation  binds  itself  to  maintain  this 
religion  and  its  ministers. 

No  one  shall  be  molested  in  Spanish  territory  on  account  of 
his  religious  opinions,  or  for  the  exercise  of  his  particular  form 
of  worship,  provided  he  show  the  respect  due  to  Christian  mor- 
ality. 

Ceremonies  and  public  manifestations  other  than  those  of  the 
State   religion,   however,   shall    not  be   permitted. 

The  first  and  the  last  clauses  of  this  article  are  the  ones 
creating  such  a  stir  just  now.  Spain  is  almost  entirely  Cath- 
olic, and  as  I  have  said,  there  are  only  about  7,500  Protestants 
(including  many  foreigners)  and  some  4,500  Jews  in  Spain. 
They  were  an  insignificant  minority,  and  in  so  far  as  they  are 
foreigners,  Spaniards  have  never  deemed  that  they  should 
enjoy  privileges  to  which  the  Spanish  native-born  were  en- 
titled. They  are  not  given  the  privilege  of  using  the  outward 
and  visible  signs  of  a  church  upon  their  houses  of  worship, 


12  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

as  that  would  be  a  "public  manifestation"  prohibited  by  the 
Constitution.  The  doubtful  clauses  of  the  Spanish  Constitu- 
tion are  not  construed,  as  with  us,  by  a  judgment  of  the  Su- 
preme Court.  They  are  interpreted  by  a  decree  framed  by 
the  Council  of  Ministers  and  signed  by  the  King,  which  has 
all  the  force  of  a  law.  On  October  23,  1876,  a  Royal  Order 
was  promulgated,  which  undertook  to  construe  Article  XI  of 
the  Constitution,  as  follows : 

1.  From  this  date  every  public  manifestation  of  worship  or 
sects  differing  from  the  Catholic  religion  is  prohibited  out- 
side of  the  house  of  worship  or  cemetery  belonging  to  them. 

2.  The  foregoing  regulation  comprises,  under  the  meaning 
of  public  manifestation,  every  act  performed  in  the  public 
street,  or  on  the  exterior  walls  of  the  house  of  worship  or 
cemetery,  which  advertises  or  announces  the  ceremonies,  rites, 
usages,  and  customs  of  the  dissenting  sect,  whether  by  means 
of  processions,  placards,  banners,  emblems,  advertisements, 
or  posters. 


This  law  has  been  on  the  books  for  thirty-four  years,  and 
Spaniards  have  never,  in  any  number,  petitioned  for  its  re- 
moval or  change,  but  on  the  contrary,  have  always  desired  it 
to  remain  in  force.  There  is  no  need  here  to  go  into  the 
propriety  or  justice  of  such  a  law.  In  the  Southern  States 
we  have  a  "Jim  Crow"  law  which  represents  the  local  wishes 
of  the  community,  even  if  it  be  indefensible.  The  United 
States  has  a  Chinese  exclusion  law  which  no  one  claims  to 
be  a  miracle  of  justice.  And  so  this  Spanish  law  exactly 
fitted  the  wishes  of  the  great  majority  of  Spaniards,  as  against 
an  infinitesimal  minority  who  represented  alien  religions.  We 
could  no  more  expect  the  Spaniards  to  change  their  views  on 
this  than  we  can  get  our  Southern  fellow-citizens  to  abolish 
their  "Ji"^  Crow"  and  voting  statutes.  It  is  human  nature, 
that  is  all,  and  it  must  be  recognized. 

But  as  this  interpretation  was  made  originally  by  Royal 
Order,  so,  too,  it  could  be  revoked  by  Royal  Order.  This  is 
exactly  what  Canalejas  has  done ;  he  has  simply  repealed  and 
annulled  the  former  decree  which  has  stood  for  so  many 
years,  without  putting  anything  in  its  place.  One  does  not 
know  to-day  whether  a  non-Catholic  church  may  put  up 
merely  an  announcement  of  its  name,  or  even  a  cross  and  stat- 
ues of  the   saints,  or  may  commence   a  campaign   like   the 


SPAIN  OF  TO-DAY  13 

Methodist  institution  in  Rome.  That  is  what  exasperates  the 
Catholic  Spaniard ;  for  the  present  Liberal  Government  has 
done  this  propria  motn,  without  request  from  any  large  body 
of  citizens  or  any  debate  on  the  subject. 

The  other  measures  are  bills  submitted  to  the  two  houses  of 
the  Cortes — the  so-called  "lock-out''  legislation,  using  the 
simile  of  the  factory.  One  is  said  to  propose  the  suppression 
of  the  religious  congregations  which  have  entered  Spain  ille- 
gally ;  the  other  is  said  to  be  a  measure  to  enable  the  bishops  to 
suppress  unnecessary  religious  houses  within  their  dioceses. 
A  great  deal  of  nonsense  has  been  written  or  telegraphed  to 
the  American  press  upon  this  phase  of  the  matter.  For  in- 
stance, it  is  said  that  the  Concordat  limits  the  number  of  male 
religious  orders  to  three,  and  that  there  are  now  six  hundred 
male  religious  orders  in  Spain.  This  statement  has  been  re- 
peated in  numbers  of  papers  here.  I  have  already  given  the 
statistics  of  the  religious  orders  in  Spain,  and  need  only  say 
that  the  six  hundred  can  only  refer  to  religious  houses  or 
communities.  If  the  correspondent's  fertile  imagination  holds 
out,  he  will  soon  reckon  each  monk  as  a  "religious  order." 

There  is  no  law  in  Spain,  nor  does  the  Concordat  itself  use 
any  terms,  restricting  the  male  religious  orders  to  three.  I 
quote  from  the  Concordat  of  1851,  which  was  ratified  and  put 
into  execution  in  Spain  by  the  law  of  October  17,  185 1  : 

Article  XXIX.  In  order  that  the  whole  Peninsula  may  have 
a  sufficient  number  of  ministers  and  evangelical  laborers  for 
the  prelates  to  avail  themselves  by  giving  missions  in  the 
localities  of  their  dioceses,  helping  the  parish  clergy,  assisting 
the  sick,  and  for  other  works  of  charity  and  public  utility, 
the  Government  of  her  Majesty,  which  proposes  to  assist 
Colleges  for  Missions  beyond  the  seas,  will  henceforth  take 
suitable  steps  to  establish  wherever  necessary,  after  previous 
consultation  with  the  diocesans,  religious  houses  and  con- 
gregations of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  St.  Philip  Neri,  and  another 
order  among  those  approved  by  the  Holy  See,  which  also 
will  serve  at  the  proper  times  as  places  of  retreat  for 
ecclesiastics,  in  which  to  make  their  spiritual  exercises,  or  for 
other  pious  uses. 


There  is  no  restriction  in  this  language,  but  on  the  con- 
trary these  three  orders  or  congregations  are  made  a  part  of 
the  State  Church.  This  will  be  seen  from  a  later  article  in 
the  Concordat,  where  the  State  is  bound  to  maintain  them: 


14  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Article  XXXV.  The  government  of  her  Majesty  will  pro- 
vide the  necessary  means  for  the  maintenance  of  the  religious 
houses  and  congregations  mentioned  in  Article  XXIX. 

This  was  really  a  short  method  of  getting  charitable  and 
eleemosynary  work  done  at  the  least  expense  to  the  State. 

There  is  no  restriction  upon  religious  orders  in  Spain  any 
more  than  there  is  in  the  United  States,  and  in  both  places 
they  have  occupied  somewhat  the  same  status.  Under  the 
Spanish  Constitution  it  is  provided  that : 

Article  XIII.  Every  Spaniard  has"  the  right  ...  to  form 
associations  for  any  of  the  ends  of  human  life. 

This  has  been  uniformly  interpreted  as  the  right  to  form 
religious  organizations  of  any  kind.  This  right  is  expressly 
recognized  in  the  Association  (or,  as  we  should  say,  Member- 
ship Corporation)  Law  of  June  30,  1887: 

Article  I.  The  right  of  association  which  is  recognized  by 
Article  XIII  of  the  Constitution  may  be  exercised  freely,  con- 
formable to  the  provisions  of  this  act.  Under  it  associations 
may  be  formed  for  religious,  political,  scientific,  artistic,  and 
benevolent  purposes,  or  for  recreation  or  other  lawful  ends, 
which  do  not  have  profit  or  gain  as  their  sole  or  principal 
obj  ect. 

Article  II.  From  the  provisions  of  this  law  are  excepted: 
(i)  Those  associations  of  the  Catholic  religion  authorized  in 
Spain  by  the  Concordat.  The  other  religious  associations 
shall  be  regulated  by  this  law,  but  the  non-Catholic  ones  must 
be  subject  to  the  limitations  prescribed  by  Article  II  of 
the  Constitution.  (2)  Societies  which  are  formed  for  mer- 
cantile purposes.  (3)  The  institutes  or  corporations  which 
exist  or  act  under   special  laws. 

What  the  Liberal  ministers  mean,  when  they  say  "illegal" 
orders,  is  that  many  orders  have  not  inscribed  themselves,  as 
to  their  respective  houses  or  communities,  in  the  books  of 
registry  of  the  province  where  they  are  situated.  But  the 
statistics  show  that  out  of  a  total  of  3,253  communities,  2,831 
have  been  duly  registered.  The  Premier  Canalejas  also  desires 
to  shut  out  all  foreign  members  of  religious  orders  or  congre- 
gations from  their  rights  of  association,  upon  the  ground  that 
the  Constitution  only  provides  that  Spaniards  shall  have  such 
rights.  This  is  analogous  to  our  laws  providing  that  Asiatics 
shall  not  become  naturalized  citizens,  or  that  aliens  cannot  hold 
land  in  certain  states. 


SPAIN  OF  TO-DAY  15 

The  debates  in  both  houses  of  the  Cortes  upon  these  last 
proposals  have  been  very  warm.  The  one  of  which  so  much 
is  made  in  America — the  so-called  permission  for  non-Catholic 
organizations  to  display  the  insignia  of  public  worship — has 
not  caused  so  much  comment  in  Spain.  In  fact,  Catholic  news- 
papers refer  very  little  to  it.  It  is  regarded  more  as  an  af- 
front to  the  Pope,  as  evidence  of  a  desire  to  avoid  a  real  revi- 
sion of  the  Concordat,  and  is  treated  as  a  cheap  bid  for  popu- 
larity. But  in  regard  to  the  Spaniard's  constitutional  right  to 
form  associations  as  he  pleases,  feelings  run  deep  and  strong. 
The  provision  of  the  bill  that  orders  may  be  suppressed  and 
their  very  interior  affairs  regulated  by  officious  state  meddlers, 
has  roused  general  indignation.  Protests  have  been  pouring  in 
by  mail,  telegraph,  and  special  messenger  from  every  part  of 
Spain.  Sometimes  four  to  five  columns  of  the  bare  outline  of 
the  protests  and  the  thousands  of  signatures  appear  in  the 
papers.  Catholic  sentiment  throughout  the  entire  country  is 
aroused,  for  this  is  recognized  as  the  opening  gun  of  an  as- 
sault upon  the  Church.  Canalejas  is  a  Catholic,  but  his  suc- 
cessor may  not  be,  and  so  the  Catholic  world  is  rousing  itself. 

Catholic  Spain  is  fairly  well  organized.  At  present  there 
are  255  Catholic  associations  or  clubs,  47  Catholic  labor  unions, 
556  agricultural  associations,  297  Rafifeisen  Mutual  Banks,  95 
artisans'  unions.  33  consumers'  leagues,  92  indemnity  associa- 
tions. 33  diocesan  councils  of  different  societies,  eight  popular 
libraries,  and  three  credit  banks.  The  Catholic  press  publishes 
60  papers  of  all  kinds.  The  units  of  the  organizations  are  the 
various  parishes  which  make  a  focus  of  religious  and  social 
life. 

It  has  been  asserted  on  the  floor  of  the  Cortes,  and  repeated 
over  and  over  again  in  our  press,  that  Spain  is  over-run  with 
religious  orders,  and  that  they  pay  no  taxes.  Olf  course  those 
that  are  authorized  by  the  Concordat  pay  no  taxes,  for  they 
are  part  and  parcel  of  the  State  Church.  I  have  not  the  sta- 
tistics at  hand  to  show  what  taxes  are  paid  or  what  exemp- 
tions are  claimed,  but  if  one  will  look  at  the  matter  a  moment 
from  an  American  standpoint  it  will  be  seen  that  ordinary 
civilized  nations  exact  no  taxes  in  similar  cases.  For  instance, 
here  in  our  own  country,  schools,  hospitals,  libraries,  asylums, 
etc.,  pay  no  taxes.  Why,  then,  should  the  religious  orders  in 
Spain,  which  conduct  such  institutions  of  education,  charity,  or 


i6  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

mercy,  be  required  to  submit  to  taxation?  I  have  already  giv- 
en the  statistics  of  the  religious  orders  in  Spain,  but  the  sur- 
prising part  of  the  situation  is  that  Spain  has  fevi^er  members 
of  religious  communities  per  population  than  many  other 
Catholic  countries  or  Catholic  populations.  Here  are  some  of 
the  figures  for  the  year  1909  : 

/-       ^         /-  ^u  1-     D       14.-  Individuals  in       Number  per 

Country.     Catholic  Population.     Religious  Orders,     ten  thousand. 

Belgium 7,276,461  37,905  52 

United  States 14,235.451  65,702  46 

England  and  Wales.  2,130,000  6,458  30 

Germany   22,109,644  64,174  29 

Ireland  3,3o8,66r  9,190  27 

Spain    19,712,285  54,738  27 

In  addition  to  this  it  is  to  be  noted  that  in  28  dioceses  the 
number  of  individuals  belonging  to  religious  communities  in 
each  does  not  reach  100.  In  Minorca  there  are  only  three; 
in  Guadix  6,  in  Astorga  15,  and  in  Siguenza  19.  It  cannot  be 
said,  therefore,  that  Spain  is  overrun  with  religious  orders,  or 
that  its  condition  in  that  regard,  as  compared  with  other  coun- 
tries, is  remarkable. 

The  outcome  of  the  parliamentary  discussion  of  the  bills 
in  relation  to  the  orders  and  religious  houses  cannot  be  fore- 
seen clearly.  It  may  be  said  that  they  will  pass  Congress,  but 
in  the  Senate  many  of  the  ministerialists  are  not  strong  Lib- 
erals, while  the  Conservatives  have  a  large  following  and 
can  also  make  combinations  with  other  groups. 

The  unfortunate  affront  to  the  Holy  See  will,  of  course,  not 
be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  way  of  the  proper  adjustment  of 
things.  That  was  shown  when  the  massing  of  the  protesting 
Catholic  organizations  was  abandoned,  rather  than  allow  it  to 
be  used  as  the  entering  wedge  of  Carlism.  But  the  elements 
of  the  situation  which  I  have  given  will  enable  the  reader  to 
judge  in  some  intelligent  fashion  the  fragmentary  and  often 
incoherent  news  that  comes  from  Spain. 


RECENT  IMPRESSIONS  OF  SPAIN 

Madrid  and  Toledo 

THE  railways  in  Spain  are  proverbially  slow,  yet  we 
found  that  they  went  at  a  fair  speed,  even  judged  by 
American  ideas.  There  was  a  good  reason  in  part 
for  their  slowness.  The  railways  of  Spain,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  comparatively  short  stretch  on  the  Northern  Rail- 
way out  of  Madrid,  are  single  track,  and  they  are  rather  to 
be  compared  with  our  railroads  west  of  the  Mississippi  River 
than  with  those  in  the  east.  But  we  found  the  sleeping  cars 
quite  comfortable  and  with  much  more  privacy  than  is  usual 
in  the  American  pullman  car.  The  fast  expresses  have  a  letter 
box  or  slot  on  the  side  of  the  mail  car,  and  it  is  no  infrequent 
sight  at  the  country  stations  to  see  the  people  come  trooping 
down  to  meet  the  train  to  mail  their  letters. 

The  landscape  through  Castile  and  New  Castile  looks  deso- 
late and  deserted  to  American  eyes,  so  accustomed  to  farm- 
houses nestling  among  the  trees.  There  are  no  trees  in  Cas- 
tile and  but  few  in  New  Castile.  The  Spanish  countryman 
has  an  idea  that  trees  afford  merely  lodging  places  for  the 
birds  to  lie  in  wait  and  steal  the  grain  the  farmer  plants. 
A  Castilian  proverb  says  that  a  lark  has  to  bring  his  own  pro- 
visions with  him  when  he  visits  Castile.  The  rolling  country 
and  distant  hills  seem  from  the  railway  like  large  brown  sea 
waves  hardened  into  earth.  Still  the  Spanish  peasant  is  a 
painstaking  and  hard-working  farmer.  His  fields  are  tilled 
with  all  the  care  and  minuteness  of  a  garden.  Every  bit  of 
land  on  either  side  of  the  railway  track  was  under  cultiva- 
tion and  we  were  told,  produced  good  crops.  As  the  Span- 
ish peasantry  dwell  in  villages  and  not  in  scattered  farm  houses 
and  go  abroad  to  till  their  fields,  the  landscape  seemed  curi- 
ously desolate  to  American  eyes  accustomed  to  the  familiar 
farm  house  and  barn  every  few  miles. 

Arriving  at  Madrid,  at  the  Atocha  Station,  at  the  southern 

17 


i8  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

end  of  the  Prado,  we  found  a  decided  contrast  to  the  quiet  of 
the  country.  The  long  line  of  hotel  omnibuses  and  cabs  solicit- 
ing travellers  showed  that  Madrid  was  as  active  in  that  regard 
as  any  American  city.  Indeed,  in  one  respect,  it  was  even 
more  advanced  than  New  York.  The  Spanish  mail  wagons 
(correos)  were  not,  as  here,  drawn  by  horses,  but  were  smart, 
light-running  automobiles,  which  traversed  the  city  with  mar- 
velous celerity  and  delivered  the  mail  with  expedition. 

Madrid,  in  some  respects,  is  a  disappointing  city.  It  is  old 
enough  not  to  be  new,  and  yet  it  is  not  old  enough  to  be  an- 
cient. Its  cathedral,  Nuestra  Senora  de  la  Almudena,  has 
not  been  built  above  the  basement  story,  and  in  that  it  resem- 
bles the  beginnings  of  many  American  churches.  This  cir- 
cumstance made  us  feel  quite  at  home  when  we  went  down 
to  admire  it.  The  basement  is  very  beautifully  constructed  and 
has  a  fine  organ.  Some  time,  when  money  is  more  plentiful 
in  Spain,  the  splendid  main  structure  will  be  built.  Another 
instance  of  newness  is  the  Church  of  San  Francisco — the  Pan- 
theon or  Westminster  Abbey  of  Spain — for  it  looks  almost  as 
if  it  left  the  builders'  hands  only  the  day  before  yesterday.  It 
is  a  circular  church  with  a  very  lofty  dome  like  the  Capitol 
at  Washington  or  St.  Paul's  in  London.  The  stained  glass 
is  very  modern,  but  it  contains  examples  of  the  very  finest 
German  and  French  artists  in  modern  glass-design  and  color- 
ing. The  whole  effect  is  one  of  beauty  and  harmony.  But 
the  church  hardly  fulfills  its  purpose  of  being  the  resting- 
place  of  the  great  men  of  Spain,  as  the  inscription  on  its  front 
"Spain  to  her  distinguished  sons"  {Espana  a  sus  preclaros 
Hijos)  proudly  proclaims.  The  commissions  entrusted  with 
the  search  were  unable  to  find  the  bodies  of  Guzman,  Cer- 
vantes, Lope  de  Vega,  Herrera,  Velasquez,  or  Murillo,  whose 
resting-places  are  unknown.  Even  many  of  those  who  were 
disinterred  and  buried  here  were  afterwards  removed  and  re- 
stored to  their  original  tombs  owing  to  the  vigorous  protests 
and  threatened  lawsuits  of  their  descendants  and  their  fellow- 
provincials. 

New  buildings  are  going  up  everywhere;  a  fine  new  post- 
office  intended  to  be  very  modern  and  up-to-date,  and  a  still 
finer  hotel — one  of  the  Ritz-Carlton  series — intended  to  eclipse 
anything  of  its  kind,  while  a  host  of  apartment  houses  and 
minor  structures  are  projected.     The  first  hotel  to  which  we 


RECENT  IMPRESSIONS  OF  SPAIN  19 

went  was  being  modernized  to  such  an  extent  that  openings 
were  being  made  in  the  walls  and  the  floors  to  admit  a  won- 
derful steam-heating  plant !  The  proprietor  begged  us,  with 
many  courtly  bows,  to  stay,  that  the  installation  of  the  calefac- 
cion  should  not  disturb  us,  for  it  would  be  transferred  to  an- 
other part  of  the  house.  Notwithstanding  his  entreaties,  and 
the  fine  rooms  with  special  balconies  overlooking  the  Carrera 
de  San  Jeronimo,  we  took  up  our  quarters  elsewhere,  giving 
a  weak-kneed  promise  of  coming  back  when  the  calefaccion 
was  completed. 

Madrid  cabmen  are  very  independent,  self-possessed,  chary 
of  speech,  and  will  seldom  abate  much  of  their  price  for  a 
drive.  They  may  be  said  to  be  the  opposite  of  the  Italian  cab- 
man in  these  respects.  Once  I  asked  a  cabman  how  much  he 
would  charge  to  drive  me  across  Madrid  to  the  Museo  de  Arte 
Modema,  and  he  answered:  "Dos  pesetas  y  medio"  (Two 
and  a  half  pesetas).  I  said  that  I  would  give  him  two  pesetas, 
and  all  he  did  was  to  look  at  me  reproachfully,  take  out  a 
cigarette,  slowly  light  it,  and  begin  to  smoke.  He  had  named 
his  price  and  that  ended  it.  Nor  did  any  of  the  other  cabmen 
in  the  line  make  a  move  to  secure  me  as  a  fare. 

The  focus  of  life  in  Madrid  is  at  the  Puerta  del  Sol  (the 
Gate  of  the  Sun).  Once  upon  a  time,  when  Madrid  had  its 
beginning  and  there  were  walls,  there  was  a  Gate  of  the  Sun. 
It  disappeared  long  ago,  and  now  one  looks  directly  upon  the 
rising  sun,  if  one  strolls  out  early  enough,  without  the  inter- 
vention of  walls.  The  place  is  now  a  large  oblong  plaza,  the 
starting-point  for  all  the  electric  street  cars  in  Madrid  and 
the  location  of  some  of  the  most  fashionable  hotels.  The 
population  of  Madrid  surges  through  it  at  all  times  of  the  day, 
and  in  that  respect  it  may  be  compared  to  Fifth  Avenue  in 
New  York  or  to  Trafalgar  Square  in  London.  From  it  radi- 
ate a  number  of  important  streets,  of  which  the  Calle  de 
Alcala  is  the  largest  and  the  best  known.  It  is  far  wider  than 
the  widest  street  we  have  in  New  York,  and  it  leads  directly 
to  the  Buen  Retiro,  or  Central  Park  of  Madrid,  passing  by  the 
Prado,  a  great  avenue  of  trees  known  all  the  world  over.  The 
very  word  Prada  brings  to  memory  the  magnificent  Museo 
Nacional  de  Pintura  y  Escultura,  with  its  wonderfully  fine 
collections  of  the  great  masters.  It  contains  two  rooms  respec- 
tively devoted  to  Murillo  and  Velasquez,  the  Mecca  of  the 


20  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

admirers  of  the  Spanish  painters,  to  say  nothing  of  the  treas- 
ures of  the  ItaHan,  Flemish.  German,  and  French  schools.  It 
is  especially  rich  in  examples  of  Rubens  and  Vandyke,  while 
the  works  of  the  Spanish  painters  of  the  various  schools  can 
here  be  studied  as  nowhere  else  in  the  world.  Raphael  and 
Titian  are  well  represented,  and  the  portrait  of  Cardinal  de 
Paira,  by  the  former,  is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  greatest 
in  the  world  of  art.  Art  critics  have  done  ample  justice  to 
this  noble  gallery,  and  it  would  be  but  repetition  to  add  my 
words  of  appreciation. 

Behind  the  Museo  del  Prado  is  the  quiet  little  white  Church 
of  San  Jeronimo  el  Real  (St.  Jerome  the  Royal),  the  church 
in  which  the  sovereigns  of  Spain  are  wedded.  In  fact  all  this 
part  of  Madrid,  in  the  time  of  Lope  de  V^ega,  was  the  "mead- 
ows of  St.  Jerome,"  where  the  fashionables  of  the  Court 
used  to  go  for  recreation.  The  Church  of  San  Jeronimo  and 
the  great  promenade  of  the  Prado  are  all  that  now  recall  it. 
In  this  church  also  (up  to  the  year  1833)  the  members  of  the 
Cortes  used  to  come  to  hear  the  Mass  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
to  take  their  oaths  at  the  opening  session  of  Parliament;  a 
custom  now  observed  in  the  breach  rather  than  in  the  per- 
formance. Here,  too,  the  Prince  of  Asturias  (as  the  heir  ap- 
parent in  Spain  is  called)  used  to  come  to  take  his  oath  to 
observe  the  laws  of  the  kingdom.  Now,  however,  the  Church 
plays  no  greater  historic  part  than  receiving  the  marriage  vows 
of  the  sovereign.  It  was  here  that  King  Alfonso  and  Queen 
Victoria  were  married  on  May  31,  1906,  in  all  the  pomp  and 
circumstance  of  the  Spanish  Court,  only  to  narrowly  escape 
death  a  half  hour  later  on  the  Calle  Mayor  on  their  way  back 
to  the  palace.  The  bomb,  concealed  in  a  huge  bouquet  of 
roses,  was  hurled  from  the  third  story  of  a  house  by  Morral, 
an  anarchist  teacher  in  the  Ferrer  schools  in  Madrid,  and 
struck  directly  in  front  of  the  royal  carriage,  killing  the  horses 
and  killing  and  maiming  a  score  of  persons.  As  we  entered 
the  quiet,  prim-looking  church,  escorted  by  a  small  boy  of 
the  neighboring  school,  we  tried  to  imagine  the  splendor  of 
that  event  which  so  nearly  had  a  tragic  ending  for  the  royal 
bride  and  groom.  Almost  across  from  the  church  is  the  severe- 
looking  building  of  the  Spanish  Academy,  while  to  the  south 
lies  the  great  Botanical  Garden. 

The   legislative   chambers   in   Madrid   are   situated   widely 


RECENT  IMPRESSIONS  OF  SPAIN  21 

apart.  The  lower  house  of  the  Cortes  meets  in  the  Palacio  de 
Congreso  on  the  Carrera  de  San  Jeronimo,  an  unimposing 
building,  while  the  Senate  meets  two  miles  away  to  the  north 
of  the  Royal  Palace,  in  an  old  building  which  was  originally 
an  Augustinian  college.  Further  north  is  the  Central  Univers- 
ity, made  up  of  the  union  of  the  University  of  Alcala  and  the 
University  of  Madrid  in  1836,  and  now  attended  by  6,600 
students.  The  main  building  of  the  University  is  known  as 
the  Noviciado,  because  it  was  originally  a  novitiate  of  the 
Jesuits,  when  the  Society  owned  the  property  before  their  sup- 
pression in  the  eighteenth  century.  A  little  further  on  is  the 
great  Hospital  de  la  Princesa,  which,  together  with  the  great 
Hospital  General,  make  two  extensive  institutions,  probably 
the  equals  of  any  in  the  world.  In  fact,  Madrid  would  seem 
almost  too  well  supplied  with  hospitals  for  a  city  of  600,000 
inhabitants.  It  has  eleven  altogether,  besides  a  special  one 
for  small  children.  In  addition  it  has  fourteen  ambulance 
stations  (Casas  de  Socorro)  scattered  over  different  parts  of 
the  city,  affording  first  aid  to  the  injured. 

The  number  of  news-stands  and  the  great  sale  of  illustrated 
papers,  newspapers,  and  light  novels  was  noticeable.  Span- 
ish illiteracy  cannot  be  as  great  as  represented,  or  these  and 
the  numerous  book  stores  would  soon  go  out  of  business.  On 
coming  home  I  looked  the  matter  up.  I  found  the  statistics 
on  the  subject  were  much  at  variance  with  the  popular  ideas 
and  loose  percentages  given.  For  instance,  I  had  heard  it 
repeated  that  there  was  68  per  cent  of  illiterates  among  the 
population  in  Spain.  That  would  mean  that  more  than  half 
the  people  could  not  read  or  write.  Yet  I  never  met  a  person 
who  could  not  read  or  write  during  my  whole  trip  through 
Spain ;  on  the  contrary  I  saw  everybody  reading  newspapers, 
novels,  letters,  etc.  I  found  that  the  68  per  cent  was  true 
enough  when  it  was  written,  but  unfortunately  the  figures  were 
taken  from  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  and  referred  to  the 
census  of  1880,  and  could  hardly  be  controlling  to-day.  When 
we  reflect  that  Spain  is  essentially  an  agricultural  country,  with 
only  a  small  urban  population  (even  now  only  two  cities  have 
a  population  of  over  500,000),  it  will  be  seen  that  the  diffusion 
of  education  must  necessarily  be  of  slower  growth.  I  have 
not  the  figures  of  any  late  census  by  me,  but  the  census  of 
1900  puts  quite  a  different  phase  upon  the  situation. 


22  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

The  total  population  of  Spain  at  that  time  was  9,087,821 
males  and  9,530,265  females,  making  a  total  of  18,618,086. 
The  elementary  schools  numbered  25,340  public  schools  with 
1,617,314  pupils,  and  6,181  private  schools  with  344,380  pupils, 
giving  a  total  of  31,521  schools  with  1,961,694  pupils.  In  addi- 
tion there  were  ten  universities,  numerous  high  and  normal 
schools,  trade,  technical,  and  engineering  and  professional 
schools  of  all  kinds.  The  illiterates  in  1900  amounted  to  5,- 
290,368,  or  less  than  30  per  cent  of  the  population.  These  illit- 
erate persons  were,  for  the  most  part,  persons  from  maturity 
to  old  age — chiefly  hard-headed  peasants  who  had  old-fash- 
ioned notions  about  the  necessity  of  reading  and  writing — 
while  the  younger  generation  was  growing  up  bright  and  alert. 
The  lack  of  schools  is  also  accounted  for.  Spain  has  local 
government ;  and  the  thrifty  Spanish  countryman  will  not  tax 
himself  to  maintain  schools,  while  the  stipend  derived  from  the 
central  government  at  Madrid  (which  spends  about  $9,500,000 
a  year  on  education)  is  in  itself  too  small  to  maintain  schools, 
where  no  local  taxation  has  been  provided.  An  analogous  sit- 
uation may  be  found  in  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  In 
North  Carolina  in  1900  the  illiterates  were  28  per  cent  of  the 
population,  and  in  Tennessee  they  were  a  little  over  20  per 
cent. 

When  we  compare  the  sums  spent  by  Spain  on  the  educa- 
tion of  her  children  and  the  school  attendance  there  with  the 
sums  spent  in  New  York  State,  the  comparison  is  not  alto- 
gether unfavorable.  The  various  provinces  and  communes 
in  Spain  supply  the  largest  amount  of  money  to  support  the 
schools.  I  have  not  at  hand  exact  figures  for  1900,  but  I  am 
told  that  it  is  between  three  and  four  times  as  much  as  the 
central  government  furnishes.  In  the  State  of  New  York  local 
taxation  produced  $34,721,611  for  public  education,  while  the 
state  government  supplied  $4,616,769  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  total  population  of  the  State  in  1900  was  7,268,012,  so 
that  the  State  supplied  a  little  over  fifty  cents  per  capita.  The 
attendance  in  the  New  York  public  schools  throughout  the  State 
for  the  year  1900  was  873,157  pupils.  Spain,  with  two  and 
one  half  times  the  population  of  the  State  of  New  York  in 
1900,  supplied  twice  as  many  pupils  to  her  public  schools,  and 
the  central  government  supplied  for  education  about  twice  as 
much  money  as  the  central  government  of  the  State  of  New 


RECENT  IMPRESSIONS  OF  SPAIN  23 

York.  New  York  is  nearly  the  foremost,  and  certainly  the 
richest  and  most  populous,  State  in  the  Union,  and  when  we 
find  that  Spain  is  by  no  means  lagging  far  behind  the  pace 
set  by  the  Empire  State  in  the  matter  of  education,  we  can 
see  that  a  prejudiced  view — based  upon  antiquated  figures  and 
compared  with  recent  development  here — has  been  entertained 
of  Spain  in  educational  matters.  She  is  not  as  far  ahead  as 
she  ought  to  be ;  but  she  is  not  so  far  behind  as  hostile  critics 
would  make  out. 

The  same  thing  holds  true  of  the  statement  that  Spain  is 
"priest-ridden,"  that  there  are  too  many  priests,  friars,  and 
monks  there.  It  may  be ;  and  the  enjoyment  of  the  endow- 
ments of  a  State  Church  and  ancient  privileges  may  have 
dulled  their  energy  and  rendered  them  less  active  and  strenu- 
ous in  their  sacred  callings  than  our  clergy.  A  keen  and 
exhaustive  study  of  the  situation  could  alone  determine  that. 
Nevertheless  I  saw  and  conversed  with  as  bright,  keen,  and 
eager-faced  priests  in  Spain  as  I  ever  have  in  New  York. 
When  stress  is  laid  upon  the  mere  numbers  as  the  root  of  the 
criticism,  a  little  comparison  will  do  much  to  clear  the  mind. 

When  I  was  in  Madrid  a  Radical  newspaper  published  a 
severe  article  in  which  it  asserted  that  the  vast  number  of 
celibates  (priests,  monks  and  friars) — and  it  particularly  gave 
the  figures  for  the  city  and  province  of  Madrid — was  an  evil, 
particularly  because  it  meant  the  withdrawal  from  civil  life 
of  many  individuals  who  might  otherwise  be  the  honored  heads 
of  flourishing  famiHes.  But  the  illustrated  journal  "A.  B.  C." 
replied  in  a  telling  article  in  which  it  quoted  statistics  to  show 
that  in  the  city  and  province  of  Madrid  there  were  already  far 
more  bachelors  above  the  age  of  thirty  years,  who  were  lay- 
men, than  the  entire  number  of  religious  mentioned,  and  it 
sarcastically  asked  why  "they  did  not  become  the  honored 
heads  of  flourishing  families"  for  the  welfare  of  Spain.  In 
Spain  there  were  in  1900  (I  have  no  later  figures)  some  11,000 
male  religious — priests,  monks,  friars,  and  lay  religious — and 
these,  in  a  population  of  18,617,000.  gives  about  an  average 
of  one  religious  or  clergyman  to  every  1,692  persons.  By 
the  United  States  religious  census  for  1906  (there  are  no 
figures  available  for  1900)  there  were  164,830  ministers  and 
clergy  of  all  kinds  among  a  population  that  year  of  84,246,250. 
This  gives  our  own  country  one  clergyman  to  every  511  per- 


24  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

sons,  or  over  three  times  as  many  as  Spain  possesses  per 
capita.  Yet  we  are  not  prone  to  think  that  the  United  States 
is  "clergy-ridden."  A  little  comparison  of  the  relative  situa- 
tion of  things  v^ould  make  the  usual  criticism  of  Spain  a  little 
more  charitable  and  certainly  more  judicious. 

Some  eighteen  miles  away  to  the  northwest  lies  the  village 
of  Escorial,  where  Philip  II  built  the  pile  which  has  taken  that 
name  to  itself  in  the  minds  of  most  sightseers.  Escorial 
(from  the  Latin  scoria)  was  a  forlorn  village  surrounding 
certain  iron  mines,  where  slag  and  cinders  were  the  chief 
ornament  of  the  landscape,  at  the  foot  of  the  Guadarrama 
mountains.  This  spot  was  selected  by  Philip  II  to  erect  the 
great  building  which  is  at  once  a  palace,  a  temple,  a  monas- 
tery, and  a  tomb,  and  which  was  the  abiding-place  of  that 
monarch  in  the  declining  years  of  his  life.  When  the  traveller 
arrives  by  train,  a  dashing  automobile  takes  him  from  the 
station  up  the  hill  to  the  centre  of  the  village,  where  the 
famous  buildings  are.  The  dull  gray  stone  and  severe  archi- 
tecture make  it  a  part  almost  of  the  frowning  Guadarramas 
which  lie  behind  it.  High  up  on  the  mountain  side  is  a  little 
plateau  called  "Philip's  Chair"  (La  Silla  de  Felipe)  where  it 
is  said  that  the  king  caused  a  large  throne-like  chair  to  be 
placed  in  which  he  sat  and  watched  the  workmen  build  the 
Escorial. 

The  gray  building  is  situated  in  an  enormous  courtyard, 
with  still  an  inner  court.  Toward  the  east  is  the  temple  or 
church,  which  is  built  in  a  severe  style  of  architecture,  simple, 
yet  resembling  St.  Peter's  Church  at  Rome.  The  high  altar 
has  a  retablo  or  reredos  of  carved  wood,  rising  to  the  ceiling. 
Oin  the  Gospel  side,  in  a  niche  over  the  sanctuary,  are  the 
figures  of  Charles  V  and  his  family  kneeling  and  facing  the 
altar.  On  the  epistle  side  is  a  similar  bronze  group  of  Philip 
II  and  some  of  his  family  in  a  similar  attitude.  High  up  in 
the  rear  of  the  church  is  the  famous  coro  alto,  the  choir  in 
which  Philip  sat  in  his  stall  as  a  monk  and  which  had  the 
little  postern  door  by  his  side  through  which  he  entered  and 
received  communications.  He  was  kneeling  here  when  the 
news  was  brought  to  him  that  Don  John  of  Austria  had  won 
the  battle  of  Lepanto ;  he  immediately  rose  and  commanded  the 
choir  to  sing  the  Te  Deum.  This  choir  loft  is  supported  upon 
a  single  flat  arch  or  vaulting  which  trembles  under  footsteps. 


RECENT  IMPRESSIONS  OF  SPAIN  25 

It  is  said  that  the  architect  was  told  that  it  would  fall  if  it 
remained  as  he  built  it ;  thereupon  he  placed  an  elaborate 
pillar  in  the  centre  of  the  vaulting  underneath,  and  requested 
his  critics  to  examine  it.  They  walked  over  the  vaulting  again 
and  again  and  pronounced  it  entirely  safe.  Whereupon  he 
took  them  down  into  the  church  below  and  showed  them  that 
the  central  pillar  did  not  reach  the  vaulting  by  nearly  an 
inch  and  that  it  was  made  of  painted  paper!  The  choir  loft 
also  contains  a  huge  reading-desk  some  fifteen  feet  high  for 
the  great  antiphonals  to  rest  upon,  and  yet  at  the  slightest 
touch  of  the  hand  it  will  turn  in  any  direction,  so  delicately 
is  it  balanced. 

Under  the  high  altar,  down  a  long  staircase,  lie  the  sarco- 
phagi of  the  kings  of  Spain  and  their  wives  who  have  borne 
kings.  Queens  who  were  childless,  or  whose  sons  did  not 
succeed  to  the  throne,  are  not  interred  in  these  vaults.  There 
they  range  from  Charles  V  (or  rather  Charles  I,  as  he  is 
known  in  Spain)  down  to  Alfonso  XII,  the  father  of  the 
present  king,  and  there  are  yet  thirteen  granite  coffins  un- 
named and  to  be  filled.  Beyond  here  and  to  the  south  lie 
the  tombs  of  the  Princes  of  Spain,  some  of  them  quite  beauti- 
ful and  all  quite  modern.  The  most  beautiful  is  the  tomb  to 
Don  John  of  Austria,  the  famous  victor  of  the  naval  battle  of 
Lepanto  against  the  Turks  in   1571. 

The  monastery  of  St.  Lawrence  covers  the  whole  of  the 
southern  portion  of  the  building  and  possesses  a  fine  library 
with  some  magnificent  early  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts. 
A  peculiarity  about  the  placing  of  the  books  on  the  shelves 
is  that  the  gilt  edges  are  turned  towards  the  on-looker  while 
the  backs  are  turned  towards  the  wall — the  reverse  of  the 
ordinary  book  shelf.  In  the  great  courtyard  of  the  Hebrew 
kings  (so-called  because  of  the  gigantic  statues  of  David, 
Solomon,  Josias,  Josaphat,  Ezechias  and  Manasses)  the  sol- 
diers and  sailors  of  the  ill-fated  Armada  were  blessed  before 
they  set  sail  for  England.  High  up  on  the  side  of  the  great 
central  dome  over  the  church  is  what  looks  like  a  speck  of 
gold,  but  is  actually  half  the  size  of  a  man's  hand,  placed  there 
by  the  bravado  of  Philip,  as  a  proof  that  he  had  not,  as  his 
enemies  said,  spent  all  the  gold  of  his  kingdom  in  building 
the  Escorial,  but  had  still  some  to  spare  to  adorn  the  roof. 
The  palace  is  on  the  northern  side  of  the  vast  pile,  but  is  too 


26  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

formal  and  gloomy  and  has  never  been  occupied  except  for 
brief  occasions  by  the  Spanish  Court.  Perhaps  the  royal 
occupants  realize  too  keenly  that  they  will  come  one  day 
to  the  Escorial  to  stay,  and  do  not  care  to  anticipate  that 
last  coming. 

We  parted  from  the  gray  buildings  with  keen  regret,  for 
our  stay  had  been  too  short  to  explore  them  thoroughly,  as 
every  room  is  filled  with  history.  The  study,  bedroom,  and 
antechamber  of  Philip  II,  where  he  spent  his  last  days  and 
where  he  died,  made  everything  a  reality  to  us.  A  walk 
through  the  park  and  a  visit  to  the  Prince's  palace,  a  modern 
French  toy-house,  almost,  set  at  the  end  of  the  Park  by 
Philip  V,  completed  and  rounded  out  our  visit  by  bringing 
it  down  to  the  times  of  the  Bourbon  kings.  Just  near  the 
station  is  a  little  Spanish  posada,  the  mistress  of  which  pro- 
vided us  with  as  nice  a  cup  of  tea  (and  Upton's  tea  at  that!) 
as  can  be  furnished  anywhere  in  England  or  America. 

The  city  of  Toledo  lies  some  fifty  miles  from  Madrid  and 
was  the  ancient  capital  of  Spain.  Here  it  was  that  the  Gothic 
kings  ruled  and  here  King  Reccared  and  King  Wamba  held 
court  in  the  days  when  Spain  was  converted  to  Christianity 
a  second  time  after  its  invasion  by  the  Goths  and  Visigoths. 
It  was  not  until  towards  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  that  the 
capital  was  transferred  to  Madrid.  Toledo  sits  high  upon  a 
hill  where  the  River  Tagus  sweeps  round  it  in  a  semi-circle. 
It  was  for  many  centuries  a  stronghold  of  the  Moors  when 
they  held  more  than  half  of  Spain.  It  defied  capture  from  the 
river  side,  but  was  at  last  taken  by  the  Castilians  from  the 
land  side.  Outside  the  church  of  San  Juan  de  los  Reyes 
there  hang  on  the  walls  countless  numbers  of  iron  chains  and 
shackles  which  were  stricken  from  the  limbs  of  Christian 
captives  at  the  taking  of  the  city.  The  city  bears  a  distinctly 
Moorish  character  in  its  narrow,  winding,  and  confused 
streets.  It  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  hardest  Spanish  cities 
to  find  one's  way  around  in,  and  we  marvelled  much  at  the 
dexterity  of  the  driver  who  successfully  piloted  the  carriage 
without  scraping  the  doorways  on  either  side  or  squeezing 
the  passersby  flat  against  the  walls  of  the  houses. 

Two  bridges  cross  the  Tagus  by  which  one  may  enter 
Toledo.  One,  the  Bridge  of  Alcantara  (Arabic,  cd-kantara, 
the  bridge),  leads  from  the  railway  station  directly  into  the 


RECENT  IMPRESSIONS  OF  SPAIN  27 

main  part  of  the  city  by  a  winding  road  past  the  wall  and 
the  Alcazar  or  citadel,  which  is  now  a  military  training  school 
— the  West  Point  of  Spain.    This  bridge,  as  might  be  surmised 
from  its  Arabic  name,  goes  back  to  the  time  of  the  Moors. 
The  lower  Bridge  of  St.   Martin  is  further  down  the  river 
at  the  other  end  of  the  city  and  has  a  romantic  story  con- 
nected with  it.     The  architect  who  first  planned  the  bridge 
had  nearly  completed  it ;  the  wooden  scaffolding  was  still  in 
position  and  the  arches  were  about  to  be  finished.    On  going 
over   his   calculations    he   discovered    that    his    bridge    would 
not    be    strong    enough    to    bear    the    weight,  and  that  when 
the  king,  court,  and  clergy  passed  over  it  the  arches  would 
fall.     He  was  wild  with  despair  and  confided  his  discovery 
and  grief  to  his  wife.     In  the  dead  of  night,  while  the  city 
was  all  asleep,  the  devoted  wife  crept  down  to  the  water's 
edge  and  set  fire  to  the  scaflfolding  which  supported  the  cen- 
tering.    When  the  whole  bridge   fell  the  people  and   court 
attributed  the  calamity  to  the  fire.     The  architect  remodelled 
his  plans  and  the  bridge  was  built  again,  and  has  stood  firm 
and  true  ever  since.     When  it  was  finished  the  wife  publicly 
confessed  her  doings  to  Archbishop  Tenorio,  but  instead  of 
making  her  husband  pay  the  expenses  of  rebuilding  the  bridge, 
he  complimented  him  on  the  treasure  that  he  possessed  in 
such  a  wife. 

The  Cathedral  of  Toledo  is,  of  course,  the  great  centre 
of  attraction  and  its  history  dates  back  as  far  as  587.  St. 
Ildefonso  was  one  of  its  early  archbishops  (A.  D.  667)  and 
a  national  hero  of  Spain.  The  Moors  conquered  the  city  in 
the  year  700.  In  712  they  turned  the  great  church  into  their 
Masjid-al-djami,  or  chief  mosque,  and  held  it  for  300  years. 
When  Alfonso  VI  captured  the  city  in  1085  he  permitted  the 
Moors  to  retain  it  for  Moslem  worship.  But  in  a  year  or  so 
dissensions  broke  out  between  the  Moslems  and  the  Chris- 
tians, and  in  1087  the  Christians  took  forcible  possession  of 
the  building  and  turned  it  into  a  church  again.  St.  Ferdinand 
(Ferdinand  III)  caused  the  old  building  to  be  torn  down  and 
in  1227  laid  the  foundation  stone  for  the  present  cathedral. 
It  was  completed  in  1493,  the  year  after  the  discovery  of 
America.  After  the  taking  of  the  city  from  the  Moors,  the 
Archbishop  of  Toledo  was  made  the  Primate  of  Spain,  and 
it  has  been  the  primatial  See  ever  since.     The  Court  which 


28  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

was  established  here  under  Alfonso  VI  remained  until  1561, 
when  Philip  II  transferred  the  capital  to  Madrid.  The 
great  Archbishops  of  Toledo  are  known  all  over  the  world. 
The  names  of  Cardinal  Gonzalez  de  Mendoza,  the  friend  of 
Columbus,  and  of  Cardinal  Ximenes  de  Cisneros,  the  great 
patron  of  learning,  are  among  the  brightest  in  history.  The 
cathedral  itself  is  one  of  the  most  imposing  Gothic  monuments 
of  Europe;  it  is  400  feet  long  and  195  feet  wide,  covering 
about  the  same  area  as  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne,  and  its 
stained  glass  windows  are  the  finest  of  their  time.  The  only 
defect  which  jars  upon  the  exquisite  harmony  of  its  per- 
fectly executed  Gothic  architecture  is  the  aperture  pierced 
through  to  the  roof  over  the  ambulatory  behind  the  high  altar 
by  Narciso  Tome  in  1732 — a  fricassee  de  marbre  as  a  disgusted 
Frenchman  called  it.  It  is  called  the  trasparente  or  skylight 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  amid  the  chaos  of  angels  and  clouds 
which  adorn  it  in  full  rococo  fashion,  is  the  Archangel 
Raphael  kicking  his  feet  in  the  air  and  holding  a  large  golden 
fish  in  his  hand. 

The  capilla  moyor  or  high  altar,  as  in  all  Spanish  cathe- 
drals, is  separated  from  the  choir  and  enclosed  by  a  beautiful 
reja  or  iron  screen,  a  monument  of  the  art  of  the  blacksmith, 
with  all  the  beauty  and  tracery  of  delicate  sculpture.  Behind 
the  altar  is  the  retahlo,  or  wooden  reredos,  made  of  larchwood 
gilded  and  painted  in  the  richest  Gothic  style,  erected  under 
Cardinal  Ximenez.  Its  five  stories  or  stages  represent  scenes 
from  the  New  Testament,  the  figures  being  life  size  and  larger. 
The  choir,  which  is  in  the  centre  of  the  cathedral,  and  its 
choir  stalls  are  magnificent  specimens  of  carved  walnut.  The 
54  medallions  represent  scenes  in  the  conquest  of  Granada 
and  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain.  The  marble 
outside  of  the  choir  is  studded  with  bas-reliefs  of  the  Old 
Testament. 

The  most  peculiar  thing  about  the  cathedral — ^that  which 
differentiates  it  from  other  cathedrals  in  and  out  of  Spain 
— is  the  Mozarabic  Chapel  in  the  southwest  angle,  below  the 
great  tower.  The  rite  of  Spain  originally  seems  to  have  been 
the  Gothic  rite,  not  the  Roman,  or  as  it  is  also  known,  the 
rite  of  St.  James.  The  Goths  and  Visigoths  of  Spain,  when 
converted  to  Christianity,  seem  to  have  used  this  rite  alto- 
gether.    However,  on  the  rise  of  Arianism,  the  Gothic  races 


RECENT  IMPRESSIONS  OF  SPAIN  29 

of  Spain  seem  to  have  readily  embraced  the  error,  and  for 
a  long  time  Arianism  flourished  upon  Spanish  soil,  teaching 
its  doctrine  that  the  Son  was  not  equal  to  the  Father.  When 
King  Reccared  in  586  renounced  the  errors  of  Arius  and 
became  a  true  Catholic,  the  Gothic  rite,  which  had  been  prac- 
ticed and  used  alike  by  Catholic  and  Arian,  became  in  some 
way  seemingly  identified  with  Arianism.  The  advent  of  the 
Moors  and  their  domination  in  Spain  left  the  question  of 
rites  undetermined.  The  Catholic  Christians  of  Toledo  and 
other  Spanish  cities  were  allowed  by  the  Arabs  to  practice 
their  religion  under  certain  restrictions,  but  they  adopted  the 
Arabic  language  and  many  Moorish  customs,  and  in  conse- 
quence became  known  as  Mozdrabes  or  "half  Arabs."  The 
Mass  which  they  celebrated  and  the  rites  which  they  followed 
were  the  old  Gothic  Mass  and  ritual.  In  the  north  of  Spain, 
in  Aragon  and  Castile,  the  Roman  rite  was  followed,  and  the 
Gothic  rite  became  practically  unknown,  or  at  least  disused. 
After  the  conquest  of  the  southern  part  of  Spain  by  Christian 
arms  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors,  the  Christians  of  Toledo 
came  again  into  their  own. 

But  those  disturbed  times  and  the  Gothic  rite  gradually 
waned  and  there  came  grave  question  as  to  whether  it  should 
be  used  by  the  Church  or  not.  There  is  a  legend  that  it 
was  determined  to  try  the  question  by  fire,  and  two  Missals, 
one  of  each  rite,  were  cast  into  the  flames.  The  Roman 
Missal  leaped  out  of  the  flames  unscathed ;  the  Gothic  Missal 
remained  there  unconsumed.  It  was  decided,  therefore,  that 
both  rites  were  proper.  In  a  later  age  Cardinal  Ximenes 
came  to  the  rescue  for  perpetuity.  He  had  beautiful  editions 
of  the  Gothic  Missal  printed — some  of  these  editions  may  be 
seen  in  New  York  at  the  Hispanic  Museum — and  established 
the  Mozarabic  Chapel  in  the  Cathedral  of  Toledo,  where  the 
Gothic  rite  was  to  be  used  as  long  as  the  Cathedral  should 
stand. 

I  had  long  been  acquainted  with  the  rite  and  had  been  in 
correspondence  with  Don  Jorje  Abad  y  Perez,  the  Capellan 
Capitular  of  the  Mozarabic  Chapel  at  Toledo.  Through  his 
courtesy  several  years  ago  I  became  possessed  of  a  fine  Gothic 
Missal,  and  the  Hispanic  Museum  is  indebted  likewise  to  his 
courtesy  and  advocacy  for  the  fine  specimens  of  the  Gothic 
Missals  which  it  possesses.    When  we  had  inspected  the  cathe- 


30  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

dral  as  much  as  we  cared  to  for  the  first  time,  we  made  our 
call  upon  Don  Jorje.  He  begged  us  to  excuse  him  for  recit- 
ing the  vesper  office  in  choir,  but  when  that  was  finished — and 
we  saw  the  Mozarabic  canons  file  into  their  stalls  and  recite 
the  office — he  put  himself  entirely  at  our  service,  and  not  only- 
accompanied  us  over  the  cathedral  again,  but  went  with  us 
around  the  city  and  for  a  long  excursion  outside  the  walls  and 
across  the  Tagus.  Altogether  he  was  a  charming  man,  his 
chief  regret,  as  he  expressed  it,  being  that  he  did  not  speak 
English.  One  could  tell  by  looking  at  him  that  he  was  of 
Gothic  origin,  for  I  was  asked  to  translate  to  him  the  remark 
that  he  was  one  of  the  few  Spaniards  we  had  seen  with  brown 
hair  and  the  bluest  of  blue  eyes.  He  accompanied  us  to  the 
Hotel  Castilla  and  took  cofifee  with  us,  and  on  parting  hoped 
that  he  might  some  day  visit  New  York,  which  we  had  de- 
scribed to  him,  I  am  afraid  somewhat  grandiloquently. 

Up  to  i860  there  were  six  Mozarabic  churches  in  Toledo, 
besides  the  chapel  in  the  cathedral;  now  there  are  only  two. 
The  Mozarabic  Mass  is  said  in  the  others  at  certain  intervals 
during  the  year,  notably  on  St.  James'  day.  There  are  also 
some  five  other  places  in  Spain  where  the  Mozarabic  rite  is 
celebrated  on  certain  days  in  the  year,  so  that  the  rite  his- 
torically may  never  die  out  there.  The  rite  is  a  personal  and 
family  privilege  and  belongs  to  those  whose  families  have 
always  been  Mozarab.  Others  who  follow  the  Roman  rite  are 
not  permitted  to  pass  over  to  the  Mozarabic  rite,  nor  are  the 
Mozarab  families  or  individuals  permitted  to  take  up  the 
Roman  rite  except  in  case  of  marriage,  where  division  of  the 
family  may  result  from  separate  rites.  The  decay  of  the 
Mozarabic  rite  represents,  therefore,  the  dwindling  numbers 
of  the  representatives  of  the  old  Mozarab  families. 

The  Mozarabic  Mass  is  peculiar  in  many  points,  and  quite 
Oriental  in  many  of  its  characteristics.  In  some  respects  its 
Latin  is  quite  archaic,  and  the  names  for  the  various  parts  of 
the  Mass  are  quite  different  from  the  familiar  names  to  which 
we  are  accustomed.  The  Psalms  are  from  the  old  Italic  and 
not  from  the  Vulgate,  and  the  expression  Oremus  is  only 
twice  used  in  the  Mass;  once  before  the  Agios,  a  prayer  not 
found  in  the  Roman  Mass,  and  again  before  the  Pater  Noster. 
The  Gradual  is  called  the  Psallendo,  the  Offertory,  the  Sacri- 
iiciiim,  the  Preface,  the  Inlatio;  while  the  Sanctus  begins  in 


RECENT  IMPRESSIONS  OF  SPAIN  31 

Latin  and  ends  in  Greek.  The  Creed,  which  is  usually  called 
the  Bini  (couplets),  is  said  immediately  after  the  consecra- 
tion, in  couplets,  each  one  divided  off  from  the  other,  and  im- 
mediately after,  the  Our  Father  is  sung  by  the  priest,  who 
pauses  at  each  petition  while  the  choir  responds  Amen.  For 
those  who  are  learned  in  liturgies,  I  may  add  that  the  Moza- 
rabic  rite  is  the  only  western  rite  which  has  an  epiclesis  which 
is  said  as  the  post-pridie  on  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi.  In 
the  Mozarabic  Mass  they  read  the  Prophecy,  the  Epistle,  and 
the  Gospel,  and  have  besides  a  Preface  or  Inlatio  for  nearly 
every  feast  day  and  Sunday  in  the  year.  Father  Abad  y  Perez 
has  compiled  an  excellent  little  Mozarabic  Mass-book,  contain- 
ing the  whole  Mass  in  Latin  and  Spanish  called  "Devocionario 
Muzarabe,"  which  is  sold  for  a  very  modest  sum  at  all  the 
Toledo  book  shops. 

In  addition  to  the  cathedral  and  its  old-fashioned  cloisters 
with  quaint  decaying  frescoes,  the  church  of  Santo  Tome  is 
well  worth  a  visit,  if  it  be  only  to  see  the  pictures  of  El  Greco. 
Besides  there  are  two  old  Jewish  synagogues,  afterwards 
turned  into  churches :  Santa  Maria  la  Blanca  and  La  Sinagoga 
del  Transito,  afterwards  called  San  Benito.  Both  are  now 
merely  architectural  monuments,  no  longer  used  for  worship. 
The  cloisters  adjoining  the  church  of  San  Juan  de  los  Reyes 
have  been  skillfully  restored  and  show  all  the  delicate  tracery 
of  column  and  arch  designed  by  the  Gothic  architect.  Close 
by  is  the  Escuela  de  Industrias  Artisticas,  where  young  To- 
ledans  are  taught  in  both  day  and  night  schools  to  revive  and 
continue  the  ancient  arts  of  Spain. 

Toledo  is  remarkable  for  its  manufacture  of  swords  and  for 
its  inlaid  gold  upon  steel  and  iron.  It  has  also  a  modern  arms 
factory  just  outside  the  walls,  but  the  traveler's  attention  is 
chiefly  directed  to  the  beautiful  swords  and  daggers  twisted 
into  curves  and  knots  in  the  armorer's  show-windows.  You 
are  asked  to  buy  the  armas  blancas  or  armas  negras — either 
of  glistening  steel  or  dull  iron  containing  the  marvelous  tracer- 
ies of  bright,  flashing  gold  imbedded  in  Moorish  patterns. 
You  may  see  in  Toledo  also  the  posada  or  inn  where  Cervantes 
lodged  and  where  he  is  said  to  have  written,  or  at  least  con- 
ceived, a  portion  of  "Don  Quixote."  We  were  told  that 
if  one  brought  his  own  food,  he  could  lodge  and  dine  there 
even  now  at  a  peseta  (20  cents)  a  day. 


AN  AMERICAN  CATHOLIC'S  VIEW  OF 
THE  FERRER  CASE 

IT  has  been  said  that  the  execution  of  Francisco  Ferrer 
at  Barcelona  in  October,  1909,  was  due  to  the  fact  that 
he  instituted  for  the  first  time  in  Spain  a  system  of  edu- 
cation, and  that  clerical  prejudice  and  clerical  hostility  exer- 
cised through  the  religious  orders  had  encompassed  his  death. 
This  view  of  the  case  tends  to  become  the  common  one,  and 
has  caused  a  feeling  of  indignation  and  hostility  not  only 
against  the  Church  in  Spain,  but  against  the  Catholic  Church 
in  general.  If  the  story  of  his  trial  and  execution  had  re- 
flected merely  on  the  military  or  judicial  authorities  of  Spain, 
it  might  have  been  a  matter  for  them  to  right;  but  the  story 
also  arraigned  the  Catholic  Church — one  of  the  factors  in  our 
every  day  American  life — and  it  is  but  proper  that  the  facts 
surrounding  the  case  should  he  given.  In  its  last  analysis,  it 
is  the  case  of  an  anarchist  who  was  tried  for  his  participation 
in  rebellion  and  riot. 

From  the  story  as  generally  told,  one  would  naturally  sup- 
pose that  there  had  never  been  any  schools  of  any  consequence 
in  Barcelona  except  the  Ferrer  schools.  But  the  statistics  of 
Barcelona  for  the  year  1909  show  the  following  results :  pub- 
lic schools,  860 ;  private  church  schools  conducted  by  religious 
communities,  268;  private  schools  conducted  by  Catholic  lay- 
men, 564;  Protestant  schools,  22;  Ferrer  "laic"  schools,  43. 
This  does  very  well  for  the  city  and  province  of  Barcelona, 
containing  a  total  population  of  1,052,977. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  schools  of  Spain  still  leave  75  per 
cent  of  the  people  illiterate.  Those  are  the  statistics  of  i860 — 
fifty  years  ago.  According  to  the  census  of  1900  (before 
Ferrer  ever  began  his  schools),  Spain  had  25,340  public 
schools,  with  1,617,314  pupils,  and  6,181  private  schools  with 
344,380  pupils,  making  a  total  of  31,521  schools  with  1,961,- 
694  pupils,  out  of  a  population  then  of   18,618,086 — some- 

32 


THE  FERRER  CASE  33 

where  approaching  the  same  average  as  the  State  of  New 
York  at  that  date  had  in  her  public  schools.  This  is  excluding 
high  schools,  seminaries,  and  the  ten  universities.  Spain  has 
largely  increased  her  educational  facilities  in  the  ten  years 
since  1900.  The  Spanish  school-teachers  of  to-day  seem  fairly 
intelligent,  and  have  their  congresses  for  improvement  in  edu- 
cation, just  as  here  in  America. 

We  Americans,  in  the  strenuous  swiftness  of  our  civic  Hfe, 
often  forget  our  own  history,  or  at  least  do  not  call  it  sharply 
to  mind.  We  had  in  the  United  States,  some  twenty-five  years 
ago,  the  very  duplicate  of  the  Ferrer  case,  except  that  here 
the  death  and  devastation  was  not  so  great  as  in  Barcelona. 
On  May  4,  1886,  a  bomb  was  thrown  in  Haymarket  Square 
in  Chicago,  which  killed  six  policemen,  and  together  with  the 
firing  which  followed,  wounded  sixty  persons.  For  this  crime 
August  Spies,  Albert  Parsons,  Michael  Schwab,  Samuel 
Fielden,  Adolph  Fischer,  George  Engel,  and  Louis  Lingg  were 
found  guilty  and  executed.  At  the  trial  it  was  conceded  that 
none  of  the  convicted  persons  threw  the  bomb  with  his  own 
hands,  for  the  man  who  was  believed  to  have  done  so  was 
blown  to  pieces  by  its  explosion.  The  prisoners  were  charged 
with  having  aided,  advised,  and  encouraged  the  throwing  of 
the  bomb.  Their  guilt  was  shown  by  numerous  extracts 
from  papers  published  by  them  advocating  riot  and  dynamite, 
by  the  fact  of  their  speeches  encouraging  the  workman  to  rise 
against  the  capitalist  by  force,  and  the  incitement  of  their  fel- 
lows to  anarchy.  The  nearest  overt  act  was  the  making  of 
impassioned  speeches  at  a  meeting  by  Spies,  Parsons,  and 
Fielden,  which  was  concluded  just  before  the  police  came 
upon  the  scene  and  the  bomb  was  thrown.  The  wording  of 
these  newspaper  articles,  the  general  tenor  of  the  speeches, 
and  the  history  of  the  events  can  be  read  in  the  law  reports  of 
the  case  of  Spies  (Volume  122  of  the  Illinois  Reports,  pages 
1-266),  and  the  whole  reads  singularly  like  the  events  in 
Barcelona  for  which  Ferrer  and  others  suffered  death.  We 
have  forgotten  that  we  have  had  our  own  Ferrer  case,  in 
which  we  acted  exactly  as  the  Spanish  Government  did ;  and 
we  have  forgotten,  too,  the  principles  of  law  carried  out  in 
our  own  case  of  riot  and  anarchy.  In  this  Chicago  case,  the 
court  said : 

"He  who  inflames  people's  minds,  and  induces  them  by  vio- 


34  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

lent  means  to  accomplish  an  illegal  object,  is  himself  a  rioter, 
even  though  he  take  no  part  in  the  riot.  ...  If  he  set  in 
motion  the  physical  power  of  another,  he  is  liable  for  its  result. 
If  he  awaken  into  action  an  indiscriminate  power,  he  is 
responsible.'' 

Here  in  the  State  of  New  York  our  Penal  Law  provides 
(Sec.  2)  that  a  person  who  aids  or  abets  in  the  commission  of 
a  crime,  whether  present  or  not,  or  who  counsels,  commands, 
or  induces  another  to  commit  a  crime,  is  a  "principal,"  and 
shall  be  dealt  with  accordingly.  It  also  provides  (Sees.  160, 
161)  that  the  advocacy  of  criminal  anarchy  is  a  felony;  also 
(Sees.  1044,  1045)  that  murder  in  the  first  degree  is  punish- 
able by  death ;  and  that  any  person  who,  even  without  premedi- 
tated design,  causes  the  death  of  another  while  committing  a 
felony,  is  himself  guilty  of  murder  in  the  first  degree.  Trea- 
son (Sec.  2380)  is  defined  as  "a  combination  of  two  or  more 
persons  by  force  to  usurp  the  government  of  the  State  or  to 
overthrow  the  same,  shown  by  a  forcible  attempt  made  within 
the  State,"  and  (Sec.  2381)  it  is  punishable  by  death.  These 
principles  of  our  own  law  will  enable  us  to  take  a  saner  and 
clearer  view  of  the  Ferrer  matter  than  to  rehearse  merely 
the  statutes  of  rebellion  and  treason  in  the  Spanish  law  under 
which  he  was  convicted.  Lest  it  may  be  said  that  "The  dice 
were  loaded,  the  game  was  not  honest,"  we  will  keep  in  mind, 
for  the  sake  of  analogy,  what  our  own  laws  in  the  United 
States  provide  in  like  cases,  and  what  they  have  already  meted 
out  in  a  similar  situation. 

The  nexus  of  events  leading  up  to  the  revolution  and  riot 
in  Barcelona,  July  26-31,  1909,  is  too  long  to  be  told  here,  but 
we  may  briefly  set  down  a  short  outline  of  them.  Catalufia 
has  been  the  discontented  child  of  Spain,  as  well  as  one  of 
the  great  manufacturing  provinces.  The  soil  for  revolt  is 
there,  and  an  appeal  to  its  local  passions  often  finds  re- 
sponse. In  1908  the  Spanish  Government  granted  a  franchise 
to  an  iron  company  to  mine  the  rich  ores  in  Africa.  The  com- 
pany sold  its  entire  product,  for  many  years  to  come,  to  Ger- 
man syndicates.  The  Spanish  company  found  the  richest  ores 
at  the  extreme  frontier  of  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Africa, 
if  not  actually  upon  Moroccan  Riflf  territory.  They  en- 
croached upon  Moorish  territory,  or  at  least  the  natives 
thought  they  did ;  and  finally  the  clash  came  when  they  were 


THE  FERRER  CASE  35 

driven  off  by  the  Riffians.    Troops  were  sent  to  protect  them ; 
they,  too,  were  beaten  by  the  Moorish  mountaineers ;  battles 
ensued,  and  in  the  month  of  June,  1909,  Spain  had  a  Httle 
war  on  her  hands.     Reserves  were  called  to  the  colors,  and 
in    Barcelona   this    was   sharply    resented.      The    Barcelonese 
were  something  like  our  former  militia ;  they  wanted  no  mili- 
tary service  outside  of  Spain.     Besides,  they  thought  the  war 
debt  would  be  largely  paid  by  them,  being  one  of  the  wealthi- 
est provinces  in  Spain.     Moreover,  the  whole  war  seemed  to 
be  a  Madrid  scheme  to  enable  a  syndicate  to  make  money  on 
its  contract  with  Germans.     Hence  feeling  ran  high  and  all 
political   parties   in   opposition   to   the   government   in   power 
aroused  the  Barcelona  public  by  continual  agitation.    But  the 
ministry  insisted  on  the  reserves  going  to  the  front,  and  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  July,  1909,  troop-ships  sailed  from  Barce- 
lona to  Melilla.     Just  after  the  departure  of  the  last  one,  on 
July  23,  and  after  a  week's  incessant  political  agitation  and 
fiery  speech-making,  a  general  strike  was  ordered  to  express 
the   workingmen's    opposition    to   the    government    measures. 
The    factories    closed,    thousands    of    idle    workmen    met    or 
paraded  the  streets ;  all  was  at  a  fever-heat,  and  it  needed  but 
a  spark  to  start  the  explosion.    We  know  too  well  in  America 
how  strikes  in  a  flash  degenerate  into  disorder. 

This  was  the  supreme  occasion  for  which  Ferrer  and  his 
school  had  been  waiting.     For  eight  years  he  had  carried  on 
the  so-called  Escuela  Moderna  (Modern  School),  a  name  he 
did  not  invent,  but  boldly  filched  from  the  works  of  one  of 
the  ablest  scholars  in  Spain,  Don  Rafael  Altamira,  and  used 
for  a  time  as  a  disguise  to  cover  his  teaching.    His  associates 
who  managed  the  teaching  and  direction  of  the  school  were 
all   anarchists    or   of   the   anarchistic   type.      They   were   not 
merely  the  advocates  of  disorder ;  they  went  deeper  than  that. 
They  sought  to  eliminate  from  the  pupil's  mind  all  basic  ideas 
of  religion,  patriotism,  and  morality.    It  was  not  a  mere  teach- 
ing against  Catholicism  or  religious  orders,  as  the  correspond- 
ents of  our  newspapers  have  suggested,  but,  along  with  con- 
crete intellectual  training  given  in  their  schools,  the  very  ideas 
of  the  flag,  the  country,  lawful  marriage,  property,  the  family, 
and  the  reciprocal  relation  of  State  and  citizenship  were  de- 
stroyed in  the  minds  of  their  pupils. 

It  would  take  too  much  space  to  give  extracts  from  the 


36  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

school-bcx)ks  embodying  these  ideas,  but  the  Ferrer  schools 
were  the  very  antithesis  of  what  we  teach  in  our  pubUc 
schools  in  the  United  States.  Take  merely  the  extracts  from 
his  Third  Reader,  known  by  the  title  of  "Patriotism  and  Col- 
onization," where  the  children  are  taught  such  gems  as  these : 
"Don't  get  excited  for  the  sake  of  the  flag !  It  is  nothing  but 
three  yards  of  cloth  stuck  on  a  pole!"  "The  words  'country,' 
'flag,'  and  'family,'  are  no  more  than  hypocritical  echoes  of 
wind  and  sound."  "Industry  and  commerce  are  names  by 
which  merchants  cover  up  their  robberies."  "Marriage  is 
prostitution  sanctified  by  the  Church  and  protected  by  the 
State."  "The  family  is  one  of  the  principal  obstacles  to  the 
enlightenment  of  men." 

Ferrer  carried  out  the  last  doctrine  literally ;  for  he  deserted 
and  then  divorced  his  wife,  Teresa,  left  his  children,  Trinidad, 
Paz,  and  Sol,  to  shift  for  themselves,  while  he  took  a  mistress 
by  whom  he  had  illegitimate  children. 

His  teachers  represented  the  same  line  of  thought.  Mme. 
Clementine  Jacquinet,  his  chief  instructor  for  girls,  was  a 
French  anarchist  who  had  been  expelled  from  Egypt  by  the 
British  authorities,  and  who  described  herself  frankly  as  "an 
atheist,  a  scientific  materialist,  an  anti-militarist,  and  an  anar- 
chist." She  had  a  large  hand  in  preparing  the  school-books 
used  in  his  schools.  Among  his  other  professors  were  Mateo 
Morral,  who  threw  the  bomb  at  King  Alfonso  on  his  wedding 
day,  and  Leon  Fabre.  who  led  in  the  attacks  against  the 
churches  in  Barcelona,  and  other  local  teachers  who  took  part 
in  the  rioting.  It  was  the  teaching  of  these  schools  and 
their  allied  clubs  and  societies  which  prepared  the  soil  for  the 
events  which  followed  upon  the  embarkation  of  the  troops  for 
Africa.  The  anarchists  had  been  waiting  for  years  for  such 
a  chance,  and  here  was  one  made  ready  to  their  hands.  Nay, 
more ;  every  idler,  every  thug  and  criminal,  every  rascal  and 
jailbird,  was  ready  to  pitch  in  and  help  at  the  sight  of  riot 
and  plunder. 

The  "Bloody  Week"  in  Barcelona,  from  July  26  to  31,  1909, 
is  too  terrible  to  record  in  a  few  words.  At  the  time  of  the 
strike  there  were  only  sixteen  hundred  troops  and  police 
left  in  the  city.  On  the  26th,  roving  bands  of  rioters  paraded 
the  streets,  and  frequent  collisions  with  the  police  took  place. 
Banks,    post-ofiices,   credit    companies,    stores,    hotels,    ware- 


THE  FERRER  CASE  37 

houses,  and  public  buildings  were  guarded  as  well  as  possible 
by  the  slender  force  at  hand.  No  one  thought  of  guarding 
churches,  convents,  schools,  etc.,  and  so  these  were  left  unpro- 
tected. That  night  the  street-cars  were  overturned,  trolley- 
lines  cut,  telephone  and  telegraph  wires  disabled,  and  gas  and 
electric  lights  rendered  useless.  Rioting  occurred,  policemen 
were  shot,  and  firemen  stoned  and  wounded.  The  authorities 
were  thoroughly  alarmed,  and  the  riot  act  was  read  and  posted 
in  the  public  places.  The  next  day  the  city  was  declared  under 
martial  law,  and  all  powers  were  handed  over  to  the  military 
governor.  Proclamations  to  that  effect  were  posted  in  con- 
spicuous places  throughout  the  city. 

But  on  the  second  day,  July  27,  the  storm  broke.  The  revo- 
lutionists and  anarchists  had  been  holding  meetings,  and  had 
determined  on  a  program  of  looting  the  banks,  stores,  and 
public  buildings.  These,  however,  were  too  well  guarded  by 
cordons  of  military  and  police  and  well-equipped  employees. 
All  the  morning  attempts  to  pillage  and  rob  were  made,  but 
the  rioters  were  driven  off.  Then,  in  the  outlying  districts, 
they  tore  up  the  paving-stones  and  began  to  barricade  the 
streets.  They  broke  into  an  armory  and  sacked  it  of  its  arms. 
Railway  tracks  were  torn  up  and  all  means  of  communication 
were  completely  shut  off.  The  police  frequently  heard  of  out- 
rages hours  after  they  had  occurred.  A  mob  of  young  thugs 
broke  into  one  of  the  churches  and  plundered  everything  there 
and  in  the  sacristry,  set  fire  to  the  church,  and  went  howling 
into  the  streets  with  their  booty.  It  was  the  first-fruits  of  the 
anarchist  program,  and  it  supplied  an  easy  quarry  for  the 
anarchists  and  revolutionists.  The  churches,  schools,  and 
convents  were  not  guarded  at  all ;  and,  besides,  there  would  be 
plunder  for  everybody.  The  riotous  crowd  of  anarchists  and 
their  allies  now  had  a  chance  to  exploit  their  hatred  for  reli- 
gion and  order,  and  proceeded  to  carry  it  out  with  all  the 
brutality  and  savagery  of  which  they  were  capable. 

The  day  of  July  27  was  a  ghastly  one,  filled  with  smoke, 
murder,  and  terror.  The  kerosene-can  was  used  after  looting 
had  secured  every  valuable  article,  and  before  midnight  the 
mob  had  attacked  and  burned  some  twenty-two  institutions  in 
the  newer  and  outer  part  of  Barcelona.  The  police  pursued 
them  as  best  they  could;  but  the  revolutionists  were  divided 
by  their  leaders  into  sections,  attacking  churches,  schools,  and 


38  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

houses  simultaneously  at  remote  distances  from  one  another. 
During  the  night  the  King  and  ministry,  who  were  communi- 
cated with  by  cable — for  all  telegraph  lines  were  cut — sus- 
pended the  constitutional  guaranties,  leaving  the  city  and 
province  in  an  actual  state  of  war.  All  day  on  the  28th  the 
burning,  looting,  and  destruction  of  churches,  convents,  and 
schools  went  on ;  but  by  nightfall  the  troops  had  broken  a  few 
of  the  barricades  and  begun  to  subdue  some  sections  of  the 
rioters.  On  Thursday  (the  29th)  they  had  the  rioting  under 
control  and  the  revolt  was  crushed.  On  Friday  the  roving 
bands  of  anarchists,  rioters,  and  idlers  were  entirely  stopped, 
and  the  next  day  street  trafific  began  again. 

It  is  sickening  to  tell  of  the  savagery  of  the  mob.  Even  the 
dead  nuns  were  dragged  from  their  coffins,  and  paraded  with 
revolting  and  obscene  orgies,  and  then  thrown  into  the  gutters. 
Clerical  teachers  in  the  schools  were  stripped,  tortured,  and 
shot.  Even  little  children  were  not  spared.  Churches  that 
had  stood  as  monuments  from  the  days  of  the  Crusades  were 
destroyed ;  while  everything  valuable  was  plundered  from 
them  and  from  schools  and  religious  houses.  They  even  stole 
the  clothes  and  petty  jewelry  of  the  girls  in  the  boarding- 
schools. 

It  has  been  alleged  that  the  rioters  were  incensed  against 
the  religious  orders  because  they  manufactured  goods  and 
sold  them  cheaply,  thus  depriving  workmen  of  possible  em- 
ployment. As  a  matter  of  fact,  no  attacks  were  made  on  any 
of  the  working  orders,  for  there  are  none  within  the  city  of 
Barcelona ;  but  the  anarchists  confined  themselves  chiefly  to 
churches,  schools,  and  convents  of  women,  all  of  which  were 
an  easy  prey.  If  it  had  any  element  of  a  movement  in  favor 
of  enlargement  of  popular  education,  it  had  a  singular  result. 
These  are  some  of  the  educational  institutions  destroyed  and 
the  number  of  pupils  that  were  being  educated  in  them : 
Pious  schools  (escolapios),  500  scholars,  200  of  them  free; 
San  Andres  Asylum,  150  workingmen's  children,  free;  Asy- 
lum-Nursery of  the  Holy  Family,  kindergarten  for  80  children 
and  5(X)  girls,  free ;  College  of  St.  Peter,  400  scholars,  day  and 
night  schools,  free;  Convent  of  Loreto,  150  girls,  boarders; 
Franciscan  Nuns,  150  girls,  free:  Immaculate  Conception,  250 
girls,  boarders ;  Girls'  College  of  Salesian  Sisters,  300  stu- 
dents, 70  night  students,  free;  Convent  of  the  Adoration,  80 


THE  FERRER  CASE  39 

girl  students ;  Workingmen's  Free  Schools  at  San  Andres,  600 
workingwomen  scholars,  free ;  Boys'  College  at  San  Jose,  250 
students ;  Workingmen's  Institute  at  Pueblo  Nuevo,  200 
pupils ;  Catholic  Club  at  Pekin,  80  fishermen's  children,  free ; 
Manual  Training  School,  100  boys,  free;  Asylum  in  Aldeva 
Street,  800  children  of  workingmen,  educated  free ;  Dominican 
Nuns,  150  girl  students;  College  of  San  Antonio,  500,  part  of 
them  free ;  and  others  which  dispensed  education  along  with 
other  forms  of  charitable  relief.  This  leaves  out  entirely  the 
destruction  of  the  hospitals,  homes,  etc.,  unconnected  with 
education.  Altogether  the  rioters  burned  and  wrecked  the 
following  buildings :  churches  and  chapels,  22 ;  convents,  14 ; 
schools  and  colleges,  20;  asylums,  homes,  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions, 22  ;  official  buildings  and  private  houses,  19 ;  making 
a  total  of  97.  In  doing  so,  they  killed  102  persons  and  seri- 
ously wounded  and  maimed  312.  There  is  nothing  since  the 
Reign  of  Terror  or  the  Commune  in  Paris  to  equal  it  in  feroc- 
ity and  destruction. 

It  was  for  his  connection  with  this  outbreak  of  revolution 
and  civil  war  that  Ferrer  was  tried  and  condemned.  One  of 
his  closest  friends,  Emiliano  Iglesias,  said  lately  in  the  Span- 
ish Cortes  that  Serior  Maura  should  be  killed  for  his  death, 
and  when  Seiior  Maura  passed  through  Barcelona,  shortly 
thereafter,  he  was  fired  upon  as  he  alighted  at  the  railway 
station.  Thus  they  object  to  an  execution  according  to  law, 
but  are  willing  to  pass  sentence  of  death  and  have  it  immedi- 
ately executed  without  even  the  formality  of  notifying  the 
victim.  The  press  of  the  United  States  made  no  adverse 
comments  upon  this  turn  of  affairs.  As  the  city  of  Barcelona 
remained  under  martial  law  for  some  four  months  after  the 
outbreak,  and  the  civil  courts  were  suspended,  Ferrer  was  tried 
by  court-martial. 

Although  there  were  four  trials  and  executions  of  ring-lead- 
ers in  the  revolt,  no  outcry  was  made  about  any  of  them  ex- 
cept Francisco  Ferrer  y  Guardia.  When  Miguel  Paro  was 
shot  over  a  month  before  Ferrer,  nothing  was  said  in  the 
press.  There  have  been  executions  since,  and  several  sen- 
tences to  long  terms  in  prison,  for  the  participants  in  that 
awful  week,  but  the  press  of  the  world  has  been  mute.  The 
competency  and  integrity  of  the  court-martial  that  tried  him 
have  never  been  assailed.     All  the  venom  has  been  reserved 


40  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

for  the  Catholic  Church  and  the  religious  orders,  with  not  one 
word  of  sympathy  or  regret  for  the  awful  deeds  of  murder 
and  pillage  wrought  upon  them.  This  court-martial  consisted 
of  a  presiding  judge  and  six  captains :  Colonel  Eduardo  de 
Aguirre,  Captains  Pompeyo  Marti,  Sebastian  Calleras,  Mar- 
celino  Diaz,  Manuel  de  Llanos,  Aniceto  Garcia  Rodriguez,  and 
Julio  Lopez  Marzo.  The  prosecutor  was  Captain  Jesus  Maria 
Rafales,  of  the  Infantry,  and  the  counsel  chosen  by  the  defend- 
ant was  Captain  Francisco  Galceran  y  Ferrer,  of  the  Engi- 
neers, who  made  a  most  determined  effort  for  his  client. 

The  military  code  under  which  Ferrer  was  tried  was  passed 
by  the  Liberal  Parliament  in  1890.  The  formation  of  the 
court-martial  is  automatic,  being  made  by  designation  of  a 
number  of  officers  six  months  in  advance,  so  that  a  special 
court-martial  is  not  formed  to  try  a  prisoner.  The  accused  is 
notified  of  the  formation  of  the  court,  and  can  object  to  any 
member  and  then  another  must  take  his  place.  The  rules  of 
evidence  are  the  same  as  in  the  Spanish  criminal  courts.  The 
trial  of  Ferrer  lasted  for  twenty-eight  days ;  over  seventy  per- 
sons were  examined  as  witnesses  ;  the  majority  of  those  testify- 
ing to  facts  against  him  were  practically  of  his  own  side ;  they 
were  Republicans,  Liberals,  revolutionists,  labor  leaders,  and 
anarchists,  and  it  was  their  testimony  which  demonstrated  his 
complicity  in  the  riots  of  July.  Not  a  clerical  witness  or  one 
connected  with  the  churches  or  religious  orders  was  called 
against  him. 

Francisco  Ferrer  y  Guardia,  during  his  residence  in  Barce- 
lona prior  to  July  28,  1909,  wore  a  full  beard ;  when  he  was 
captured  by  the  police  in  the  latter  part  of  August  he  was 
smooth  shaven.  He  pretended  that  he  was  a  tourist  and  a 
delegate  to  the  European  convention,  and  was  not  recognized 
^t  the  country  place  where  he  was  taken  into  custody.  A  few 
days  later  it  was  ascertained  that  he  was  Ferrer,  and  he  was 
brought  to  Barcelona.  In  his  country  villa,  Mas  Germinal,  at 
Mongat,  about  six  miles  out  of  Barcelona,  a  quantity  of  tele- 
grams, correspondence,  circulars,  and  memoranda  were  dis- 
covered, and  in  the  Solidaridad  Obrera  (his  headquarters  in 
Barcelona)  still  more  were  taken.  These  alone  made  up  fifty- 
four  packages,  or  files  of  exhibits,  of  the  documentary  evi- 
dence presented  at  the  trial.  They  contained  urgent  calls  to 
rise  against  capital,  seize  the  banks,  destroy  the  churches,  dis- 


THE  FERRER  CASE  41 

able  the  railroads,  etc.  One  of  them  winds  up  with :  "Work- 
men, prepare  yourselves.  The  hour  is  at  hand!"  Annexed 
thereto  is  a  recipe  for  the  manufacture  of  dynamite. 

Among  other  things  they  clearly  demonstrated  that  Ferrer 
had  been  actively  connected  with  every  conspiracy  to  overturn 
established  authority  in  Spain  since  1883;  that  on  every  occa- 
sion he  was  in  active  correspondence  with  the  leaders  of  those 
movements,  and  was  in  touch  with  everything  they  did — the 
years  1885,  1892,  1898,  clear  down  to  the  attempt  to  kill  the 
king  in  Madrid  in  1906,  by  Mateo  Morral.  It  was  a  curious 
coincidence,  to  say  the  least,  that  he  was  always  on  hand  on 
each  of  these  occasions,  and  always  in  close  consultation  with 
the  men  who  did  the  deeds.  His  correspondence,  circulars, 
and  statements  all  preached  social  revolution  and  advocated  its 
bringing  about  by  force  and  rebellion.  He  himself  claimed 
toward  the  last,  and  his  partisans  nowadays  maintain,  that 
he  was  merely  a  philosophic  anarchist,  and  that  he  had  aban- 
doned his  former  doctrines  of  violence  and  dynamite.  But 
they  do  not  deny  that  he  was  an  anarchist,  and  in  active  touch 
and  correspondence  with  the  advocates  of  violence,  even 
almost  down  to  his  death. 

The  prosecution  adduced  proof  which  followed  Ferrer's 
acts  throughout  the  riots  until  the  troops  began  to  subdue 
the  rioters — when  Ferrer  disappeared  from  the  city — covering 
three  days  in  all.  The  summary  of  this  evidence  may  be  here 
given,  day  by  day. 

On  Monday,  July  26,  the  day  when  the  rioters  began  to 
clash  with  the  police,  Ferrer  was  seen  by  the  witnesses,  Angel 
Fernandez  Bermejo,  Claudio  Sanchez,  and  Manuel  Cabro, 
among  certain  riotous  groups  in  formation  in  the  Plaza  de 
Antonio  Lopez,  at  about  six  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  A  de- 
tachment of  mounted  men  dispersed  these  rioters,  and  Ferrer 
thereupon  went  toward  the  Puerta  de  la  Paz,  where  he  was 
again  engaged  in  addressing  another  group.  On  the  police 
coming  toward  them,  he  went  on  down  the  Rambla,  the  prin- 
cipal street  in  Barcelona.  The  proprietor  of  the  Hotel  Inter- 
nacional,  on  the  Rambla,  testified  that  Ferrer  dined  there. 
Francisco  Domenech,  a  barber  and  a  partizan  of  Ferrer,  testi- 
fied that  he  met  Ferrer  at  the  Hotel  Internacional  at  half-past 
nine  that  night,  and  from  there  they  went  to  the  editorial  office 
of  "El  Progreso,"  "to  see  how  the  comrades  were  getting  on." 


42  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

After  coming  away,  they  went  to  the  Cafe  Aribau,  where 
Ferrer  met  Calderon,  Ponte,  Tuban,  and  Litran,  all  of  whom 
were  afterward  mixed  up  in  the  rioting.  Then  Ferrer,  with 
Domenech,  went  back  to  the  office  of  "El  Progreso,"  saying  that 
he  wanted  to  see  Iglesias,  its  editor  (the  same  Emiliano  Igle- 
sias  who  advocated  the  assassination  of  Maura  upon  the  floor 
of  Congress  in  Madrid),  and  tell  him  not  to  sign  the  contem- 
plated protest  to  the  government  against  the  war  in  Melilla, 
"because  the  revolution  will  be  here  and  the  signers  will  be 
marching  at  the  head  of  the  populace."  On  his  way  from 
this  interview  Ferrer  met  Moreiio,  to  whom  he  said  that  the 
Solidaridad  Obrera  should  take  sides  with  the  rioters,  for  it 
was  already  compromised,  and  those  who  did  not  would  be 
treated  as  traitors  were  treated  in  Russia. 

On  the  same  evening  of  July  26,  after  the  rioting  of  the 
day,  Lorenzo  Ardid,  who  was  a  mild  anarchist  and  a  close 
companion  of  Ferrer  prior  to  the  riots,  was  taking  his  coffee 
in  the  Casa  del  Pueblo  (the  successor  to  the  Escuela  Mod- 
erna),  when  Ferrer  entered  and,  after  salutations,  said: 

"What  do  you  think  of  the  events  of  to-day?" 

Ardid  answered :  "That  is  over,  but  it  is  a  kind  of  protest 
that  ought  to  go  no  further." 

Then  Ferrer  turned  on  him  sharply :  "Don't  believe  that 
this  will  go  no  further !" 

Ardid  began  to  answer  him  excitedly.  Ferrer  grew  heated, 
and  Ardid  turned  his  shoulder  and  said :  "You  are  taking 
the  wrong  road." 

In  the  confrontation  of  witnesses,  Ferrer  admitted  he  had 
met  Ardid  there,  but  denied  the  language  used. 

On  Tuesday.  July  2^,  the  day  of  the  burning  of  so  many 
churches,  schools,  and  convents,  Ferrer  left  his  country  villa 
and  came  into  Barcelona.  On  that  day  Claudio  Sanchez  and 
Miguel  Calvo  saw  a  man,  dressed  in  a  blue  suit  and  a  straw 
hat  with  the  front  drawn  down,  haranguing  a  group  of  riot- 
ers in  the  street.  Sanchez  went  up  to  him  and,  pointing  to  the 
proclamation  on  the  wall,  said,  "Can't  you  read  that?"  and 
dispersed  them.  Both  of  these  witnesses  afterward  identified 
Ferrer  during  the  examination  on  three  different  occasions, 
among  a  number  of  similar  persons,  as  the  man  wearing  the 
blue  suit  and  straw  hat.  Francisco  de  Paula  Colldeforns  testi- 
fied that  between  seven-thirty  and  eight-thirty  that  same  even- 


THE  FERRER  CASE  43 

ing  he  saw  a  group  of  rioters  on  the  Rambla  in  front  of  the 
Lyceum,  apparently  commanded  by  a  man  whom  he  closely 
observed  from  the  manner  of  his  actions.  He  heard  him 
order  the  rioters  to  march  through  the  Calle  de  Hospital.  As 
soon  as  he  afterward  saw  a  photograph  of  Ferrer,  he  recog- 
nized him.  On  the  examination,  he  readily  picked  out  Ferrer 
as  the  person  he  had  seen.  Ferrer  never  denied  that  he  wore 
a  blue  suit  and  a  straw  hat  during  those  days. 

On  Wednesday,  July  28,  the  second  great  day  of  the  riots 
and  pillage,  Ferrer  was  exceedingly  active,  according  to  the 
witnesses.  In  the  morning  he  came  to  the  barber  shop  of 
Domenech  and  ordered  him  to  get  the  president  of  the  Repub- 
lican Committee,  Juan  Ventura  Puig  (alias  Llarch),  and  see 
if  he  could  not  do  something.  Puig  came,  and  Ferrer  pro- 
posed to  him  to  go  to  the  City  Hall  and  proclaim  the  Repub- 
lic; but  Puig  refused,  saying  that  he  would  not  compromise 
himself.  Puig,  while  on  the  witness-stand,  declared  that  once 
before,  in  a  cafe  in  Calle  de  Puerto  Rico,  when  he  objected 
to  doing  such  things  because  the  people  ought  to  be  behind 
him  in  such  a  movement,  Ferrer  insisted  that  "then  he  ought 
to  begin  by  stirring  up  the  people,  so  that  a  lot  of  them  would 
go  out  and  burn  churches  and  convents."  Puig  further  ob- 
jected that  he  did  not  see  how  the  Republic  would  come  by 
such  means,  but  Ferrer  cut  him  short  with,  "The  Republic 
doesn't  matter ;  the  question  is,  there  should  be  a  revolution" ; 
and  then  added  a  moment  later :  "Very  well,  we  will  have  to 
destroy  everything." 

Esteban  Puigmollens  testified  that  later  in  that  day  he  saw 
Ferrer  addressing  a  group  of  rioters,  and  Salvador  Millet  said 
that  a  number  of  them  entered  the  mayor's  office  at  Masnou 
and  began  to  address  the  crowd  in  the  name  of  Ferrer.  On 
this  same  day,  the  witness,  Francisco  Valvet,  testified  that  at 
half-past  twelve  at  the  club-house  of  the  Fraternidad  Republi- 
cana  at  Premia  (a  village  on  the  outskirts  of  Barcelona)  two 
persons  presented  themselves,  one  of  whom  was  Puig  and  the 
other  a  man  in  a  summer  suit  and  straw  hat,  who  said,  "I  am 
Ferrer  Guardia,"  and  thereupon  sent  for  the  mayor,  Domingo 
Casas  Llibre,  who  came  over,  accompanied  by  the  witnesses 
Antonio  Mustareo,  the  vice-mayor,  and  Jose  Alvarez  Espinosa, 
the  aldermanic  clerk.  When  they  arrived,  he  again  announced 
that  he  was  Ferrer,  and,  turning  to  the  mayor,  said : 


44  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

"I  come  to  tell  you  that  you  must  proclaim  the  republic  in 
Premia." 

The  Mayor  said :    "Seiior,  I  won't  take  those  orders." 

Then  Ferrer  said :  "Why  not,  when  the  Republic  is  pro- 
claimed in  Barcelona,  Madrid,  Valencia,  and  other  cities?" 

The  witnesses  who  testified  to  these  facts  were  not  only 
Valvet,  but  the  mayor,  vice-mayor,  and  clerk,  and  also  Jaime 
Comas,  Pedro  Cesa,  Lorenzo  Amau,  and  Jaime  Calve,  who 
were  present  in  the  club-house  at  the  interview.  Ferrer  was 
squarely  confronted  on  four  occasions  with  the  witnesses 
Lorenzo  Ardid,  Ventura  Puig  (or  Llarch),  Casas  Llibre,  the 
mayor,  and  Alvarez  Espinosa,  who  maintained  to  his  face 
their  testimony  as  to  his  actions  and  statements;  and  Ferrer 
had  to  admit  the  fact  that  he  was  with  them. 

A  carpenter,  Rosendo  Gudas,  testified  that  on  July  27  he 
was  fixing  a  door  in  Ferrer's  house,  and  Ferrer  stopped,  in 
passing,  and  said  to  him :  "Now  what  does  Tiana  (a  nick- 
name for  the  village)  think?  It  is  about  time  now  to  burn 
down  everything." 

On  the  28th  a  street  orator  at  Masnou,  at  the  edge  of  Barce- 
lona, explained  to  the  crowd  of  rioters  which  he  was  address- 
ing that  he  had  just  come  from  Ferrer  and  that  Ferrer  could 
not  get  around  to  address  them.  A  multitude  of  other  pieces 
of  circtmistantial  evidence,  pointing  to  Ferrer's  presence  and 
activity  during  those  days  in  different  parts  of  the  city,  show- 
ing all  the  elements  of  suggestion  and  direction,  was  also 
offered.  A  curious  fact,  much  more  than  mere  coincidence, 
was  that  detachments  of  the  rioters  were  officered  by  the 
teachers  in  Ferrer's  schools,  and  that  the  severest  outbreaks 
took  place  in  precisely  the  districts  where  those  schools  and 
allied  clubs  were  situated. 

Francisco  Domenech,  the  Masnou  barber,  testified  that  on 
the  morning  of  July  29  he  shaved  Ferrer  completely,  taking 
off  his  beard.  Bruno  Humbert  on  that  afternoon  found 
Ferrer's  villa  locked  and  bolted  and  the  occupants  gone. 
Among  others  who  testified  to  Ferrer's  activity  preceding  the 
riots  were  Manuel  Jimenez  Moya,  a  newspaper  man  of  radical 
opinions  like  Ferrer's,  Marcisco  Verdaguet,  Baldomero  Bonet, 
himself  prosecuted  for  arson  in  the  riots,  Modesto  Lara,  and 
Alfredo  Garcia  Magallon,  most  of  whom  had  had  close  rela- 
tions with  the  accused. 


THE  FERRER  CASE  45 

Against  this  mass  of  testimony  Ferrer  offered  no  witnesses. 
He  only  claimed  that  he  did  not  belong  to  the  school  of  mili- 
tant anarchy.  No  attempt  was  made  to  prove  what  Ferrer 
did  from  the  26th  to  the  29th  day  of  July,  while  the  horrors  of 
murder,  pillage,  and  arson  were  going  on.  He  did  not  under- 
take to  prove  that  he  never  wore  a  blue  suit  and  a  straw  hat, 
or  why  he  shaved  off  his  beard  and  ran  away.  If  he  had  been 
innocent,  the  simplest  thing  would  have  been  for  him  to  go 
before  the  authorities  on  the  first  day  of  the  riots  and  offer 
his  services  to  restore  order.  That  would  have  tested  the 
kind  of  man  he  was,  and  would  have  proved  the  most  effective 
alibi.  It  has  been  said  that  his  mistress,  Soledad  Villafranca, 
who  was  deported  by  the  authorities  to  Teruel,  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  away,  could  have  proved  his  innocence,  but  her 
testimony  was  not  taken.  Yet  she  was  not  called  as  a  witness, 
although  the  trial  lasted  twenty-eight  days.  Nor  was  any 
request  made  to  take  her  testimony  by  deposition,  although 
that  method  was  open  at  all  times.  During  all  this  time  the 
radical  and  anarchist  press  throughout  Europe  was  ready  to 
publish  anything  that  might  tend  to  exculpate  Ferrer;  yet 
Soledad  Villafranca  and  the  others  said  not  a  word.  Nor 
have  they  detailed  any  facts  since. 

Ferrer's  counsel.  Captain  Galceran,  wanted  the  trial  sus- 
pended until  he  could  get  declarations  from  abroad  in  France, 
Italy,  and  Belgium,  principally  of  distinguished  anarchists, 
"that  the  ideas  of  Ferrer  were  opposed  to  every  kind  of  act 
of  violence,"  which  would  show  he  was  incapable  of  taking 
part  in  the  July  rioting.  The  court  properly  rebuked  Captain 
Galceran  that  such  a  line  of  defense  was  not  proper,  and  that 
Ferrer  was  being  tried  for  his  acts  and  their  consequences, 
not  for  his  ideas.  This  rebuke  was  afterward  magnified  into 
a  report,  first,  that  Galceran  had  been  shot  for  his  energetic 
defense,  and,  later,  that  he  had  been  court-martialed  for  it. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  nothing  occurred. 

The  trial  was  in  the  open  court-room,  and  the  illustrated 
papers  in  Spain  and  France  had  large  double-page  illustrations 
showing  a  hundred  persons  or  more  present.  It  lasted  twen- 
ty-eight days,  ten  of  which  were  allotted  for  the  defense  to 
use.  After  deliberation,  the  sentence  of  the  court  on  October 
9,  1909,  was  that  Ferrer  was  guilty  of  rebellion  and  treason 
under   aggravating  circumstances.     This   sentence  was   con- 


4.6  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

firmed  by  the  Captain-General  of  Cataluna  on  October  lo, 
and  it  was  afterward  approved  by  the  ministry.  The  law  it- 
self, under  Article  238,  fixed  the  penalty  therefore  as  death, 
and  this  penalty  was  carried  out  on  October  13,  1909. 

In  view  of  all  the  circumstances  involved  in  the  Ferrer  case, 
we  think  the  matter  should  be  considered  in  a  similar  light  to 
cases  occurring  in  our  own  country,  for  thereby  we  can  obtain 
a  fairer  and  more  unprejudiced  view  of  the  situation. 

He  had  a  trial,  and  there  was  evidence  produced  against 
him,  and,  moreover,  the  evidence  was  of  substantially  the 
same  nature  as  that  for  which  we  ourselves  sent  seven  men 
to  death  for  a  like  crime.  The  law  under  which  he  was 
tried  was  framed  by  the  anti-clerical  party,  while  his  daily 
associates  furnished  the  principal  evidence  against  him.  The 
case  should  therefore  be  judged  upon  the  actual  facts  involved, 
and  not  upon  prejudice  and  hostility. 


McCLURE'S,  ARCHER  AND  FERRER 


McCLURE'S  MAGAZINE  for  November  has  an  arti- 
cle entitled  "The  Life  and  Death  of  Ferrer,"  writ- 
ten by  the  English  correspondent,  William  Archer, 
who,  it  is  said,  went  to  Spain  for  the  particular  purpose  of 
ascertaining  the    facts   concerning   Ferrer.      To    judge   from 
the  first    installment   of    his    work    Mr.    Archer   might   per- 
haps have  saved  himself  the  trouble:   for,  no  matter  what 
he  gathered,  he  has  written  down  only  what  was  contained 
in   McCabe's  "Martyrdom  of   Ferrer,"  the  anonymous   "Un 
Martyr  des  Pretres,"  and  other  books  of  Hke  import.    There 
seems  to  have  been  no  investigation  on  his  part  of  any  of 
the  Spanish  officials,  merchants,  bankers,  men  of  substance, 
persons   interested   in   preserving  the  good   name  and  char- 
acter  of   Barcelona.     All   the   investigation   and   all   the   re- 
sults shown  in  the  installment  of  the  November  number  seem 
to   have    been    wholly    directed    towards    Ferrer's    late    com- 
rades   and    sympathizers    alone;    and    even    the  majority  of 
such  results,  as  stated,  are  copied  out  of  the  above-named 
books.    Spanish  official  records,  statistics,  memoranda,  and  the 
like  were  not  difficult  to  get  at  in  Barcelona,  yet  they  never 
seem  to  have  been  consulted,  or  even  as  much  as  mentioned. 
To  judge  from  Mr.  Archer's  report  it  would  seem  that  there 
was  only  a  slight  "unpleasantness" ;  and  yet  Ferrer  alone  was 
executed  for  its  occurrence.     Certainly  that  is  the  impression 
he  has  studiously  endeavored  to  create. 

Yet,  even  with  that,  he  has  to  admit  that  Ferrer,  after  all, 
was  not  the  beau-ideal  of  a  teacher  of  children,  a  moulder  of 
infancy,  either  in  morals  or  rectitude,  as  understood  among 
us.  For  instance,  he  admits  that  Ferrer  had  relations  with 
at  least  two  women  other  than  the  particular  one  who  was 
the  direct  cause  of  the  outburst  of  jealousy  against  him  by 

47 


48  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

his  wife  when  she  shot  at  him ;  he  admits  that  Ferrer's 
personal  character  as  to  sex  relations  was  such  as  we  could 
not  tolerate  in  a  teacher  or  professor  in  any  school ;  he  admits 
that  Ferrer  was  an  anarchist,  or,  as  he  calls  it  in  politer  terms, 
an  "acratist,"  which  he  tells  us  means  merely  that  Ferrer 
was  "anti-religious,  anti-monarchical,  anti-patriotic,  anti-mili- 
tarist and  anti-capitalist."  If  there  be  any  other  "antis" — 
such  as  those  relating  to  family  and  marriage,  quite  apart 
from  religion — he  must  have  inadvertently  omitted  them. 
But  Mr.  Archer  frankly  says  that  Ferrer  would  not  be  per- 
mitted to  carry  on  his  schools  in  the  United  States  or  Eng- 
land for,  "there  are  very  few  countries  in  which  teaching  so 
openly  hostile  to  the  existing  form  of  government  and  to  the 
whole  social  order  would  be  endured." 

He  then  proceeds  to  make  a  distinction  to  the  effect  that 
Ferrer  himself  was  not  an  "anarchist  of  action";  that  per- 
sonally he  did  not  favor  the  bomb,  the  torch,  and  the  rifle; 
that  he  did  not  directly  advocate  arson  and  murder,  although 
he  and  his  subordinate  teachers  taught  anarchy,  revolution 
and  rebellion  openly  in  his  schools  and  text-books  and  care- 
fully prepared  the  immature  minds  of  children  and  half-taught 
men  and  women  to  do  the  deeds  which  he  personally  feared 
to  advocate  with  his  own  utterances.  Certainly,  no  one  read- 
ing the  admissions  which  Mr.  Archer  was  compelled  to  make 
about  Ferrer  can  help  conceding  that  Ferrer  was  nearly  all 
that  his  opponents  have  painted  him.  The  summary  of  what 
Mr.  Archer  has  given  is  the  picture  of  a  man  who  has  care- 
fully set  the  springs  of  human  action  so  that  they  will  do 
the  most  diabolic  work,  and  thereupon  stands  aside  to  wit- 
ness the  result,  and  when  it  has  been  accomplished,  saying 
smugly  and  cowardly:  "I  never  raised  my  hand  to  that  work, 
for  it  cannot  be  shown  that  I  took  part,  for  I  was  most  care- 
ful to  keep  away."  This  is  the  utmost  to  which  Mr.  Archer 
can  carry  his  investigation,  confined  as  it  seems  to  have  been 
to  Ferrer's  friends  and  present-day  advocates. 

Certainly  one  may  well  doubt  the  truthfulness  and  correct- 
ness of  assertions  in  Mr.  Archer's  article,  undertaking  now 
to  overturn  the  results  of  a  trial  of  one  year  ago,  when  the 
very  facts  in  front  of  him,  mathematical,  obvious  facts,  are 
wholly  mis-stated.  It  does  not  argue  well  for  the  thorough- 
ness of  his  research,  or  the  honesty  with  which  he  states  facts. 


r 

McCLURE'S,  ARCHER  AND  FERRER     49 

For  instance,  he  says:  "More  than  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
Spanish  population  is  illiterate;  and  most  of  those  who  can 
read  and  write  have  been  miserably  taught  by  underpaid  mas- 
ters in  unsanitary  and  ill-provided  schools."  He  knows,  or 
should  know,  that  that  statement  is  not  true.  In  reality  it  is 
copied  from  pages  44  and  53  of  McCabe's  "Martyrdom  of 
Ferrer,"  and  pages  8  and  24  of  "Un  Martyr  des  Pretres" ;  so 
that  Mr.  Archer  need  not  have  gone  to  Spain  for  that.  The 
census  of  Spain  in  1900  showed  that  the  general  illiteracy  then 
was  not  over  30  per  cent;  and  Spain  has  made  large  strides 
since  1900  in  all  branches  of  education.  That  percentage  of 
illiteracy  includes  the  peasantry  of  Galicia  and  the  Basque 
mountaineers  of  the  Pyrenees,  neither  of  whom  are  anarchists 
or  in  rebellion,  although  they  are  woefully  lacking  in  book 
knowledge. 

Barcelona  was  the  focus  and  hotbed  of  the  uprising;  and, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  illiteracy  of  Barcelona  in  1908- 1909 
was  between  six  and  eight  per  cent,  as  Mr.  Archer  could  easily 
have  ascertained  by  consulting  "La  Estadistica  Escolar  de 
Espafia,"  published  at  the  beginning  of  1910.  Any  one 
who  has  ever  been  in  Barcelona  knows  the  prevalent  habit  of 
cabmen,  porters,  etc.,  of  reading  their  books  of  rules  to  a 
traveller  upon  the  slightest  controversy  as  to  fees,  prices,  and 
the  like.  Certainly  the  obvious  was  overlooked  in  regard  to 
the  statement  about  illiteracy,  for  Barcelona  is  one  of  the 
cities  abundantly  provided  with  schools,  and  about  the  first 
thing  the  mob  did  was  to  destroy  a  great  many  of  them. 
About  the  only  schools  in  that  city  which  are  small  and  miser- 
able in  comparison  with  most  of  the  others  are  the  Ferrer 
schools ;  only  eight  or  ten  of  them  were  of  good  size  and 
comfortable,  usually  they  were  in  the  cramped  quarters  of  a 
private  school.  It  was  not  the  lack  of  schools  and  education  in 
Barcelona  that  caused  Ferrer  to  start  his  propaganda ;  it  was 
the  lack  of  the  particular  kind  of  schools  which  Ferrer  fa- 
vored, and  which  would  teach  the  elements  of  anarchy  and 
revolution.  It  is  evident  that  Mr.  Archer  made  no  attempt 
to  visit  and  compare  the  real  schools  of  Barcelona  with  those 
which  Ferrer  established. 

Then,  too,  he  insists  continually  in  his  article  that  "it  was  as 
'author  and  chief  of  the  rebellion' — '<mtor  y  jefe  de  la  rehelion* 
— that  he  [Ferrer]  was  found  guilty  and  shot,"  and  again  and 


50  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

again  emphasizes  it  and  builds  several  sentences  on  it,  to 
the  effect  that  Ferrer  was  tried  as  the  sole  "instigator  and 
director  of  the  rising."  Either  he  did  not  know,  or  did  not 
care  to  say,  that  this  Spanish  phrase  was  nothing  more  than 
the  technical  legal  expression  in  Spanish  of  our  word  "prin- 
cipal" in  criminal  law,  as  distinguished  from  "accessory"  or 
"accomplice."  Our  law  here  in  America  has  often  condemned 
criminals  as  "principals"  who  have  had  substantially  no  physi- 
cal participation  in  the  crime. 

Further  on  Mr.  Archer  says  regarding  the  religious  orders : 
"Exempt  from  taxation,  some  of  the  religious  houses  compete 
in  the  production  of  certain  commodities;  and  this  unfair 
competition  is  keenly  resented  by  the  people."  Then  he  goes 
into  almost  the  A.  P.  A.  hysterics  about  conventual  life,  citing 
for  it  an  absolutely  discredited  anonymous  work,  and  draws 
the  conclusion,  "for  reasons  above  indicated,  the  religious 
houses  were  chronically  and  intensely  unpopular."  This  is  to 
give  a  basis  for  events.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  he  tells  us, 
"it  [the  mob]  did  not  single  out  for  destruction  those  institu- 
tions which  competed  unfairly  in  confectionery,  laundry  work, 
or  other  industries."  Not  a  building  of  that  kind  was  touched. 
What  the  rioters  burned  and  destroyed  were  chiefly  the 
schools,  day-nurseries,  kindergartens,  and  charitable  institu- 
tions of  defenseless  women.  Not  a  complaint  had  ever  been 
raised  about  them;  but  to  a  cowardly,  raging  mob  of  anar- 
chists they  were  easy  game. 

In  speaking  of  this  anarchistic  mob,  he  says:  "They  were 
bent  on  destruction,  not  on  theft.  ...  No  bank  was  attacked ; 
no  store,  other  than  gun-stores" ;  and  he  is  extremely  anxious 
to  show  that  there  was  "no  sack,"  even  proclaiming  in  head- 
lines that  there  was  "no  massacre  and  no  sack."  Yet  the 
slightest  inquiry,  to  cite  merely  one  case,  would  have  shown 
Mr.  Archer  that  at  the  working  women's  schools,  in  San 
Andres,  the  mob  looted  everything  they  could  carry,  and  some 
even  came  with  wheelbarrows  and  small  carts  to  carry  off 
beds,  pillows,  sheets,  chairs,  sewing-machines,  typewriters, 
dishes,  and  the  like ;  while  they  piled  up  the  heavy  furniture, 
tables,  pianos,  harmoniums,  and  desks,  for  a  bonfire!  Also 
that  every  chalice,  paten,  jewel,  and  ornament  was  stolen  from 
the  churches  and  convent  chapels  before  they  were  set  on  fire. 
He  knows  very  well,  or  could  have  found  out  easily  that  the 


McCLURE'S,  ARCHER  AND  FERRER     51 

reason  no  bank  or  public  building  was  attacked,  was  because 
they  were  all  well  protected ;  and  that  very  fact  left  no  police 
to  protect  churches,  schools,  and  convents.  It  was  not  due  to 
any  thought  fulness  on  the  part  of  the  revolutionists;  it  was 
only  because  they  did  not  dare  to  take  the  risk  of  being  shot. 

In  speaking  of  the  three  days'  unbridled  rioting,  Mr.  Archer 
is  at  exceeding  great  pains  to  minimize  it.  Yet  he  might  easily 
have  interviewed  a  hundred  persons  who  could  have  given 
him  the  details.  Had  he  done  so,  or  had  he  even  gone  around 
and  looked  at  the  blackened  ruins  throughout  the  newer  part 
of  Barcelona,  he  need  not  have  condensed  his  story  of  ruin, 
terror,  and  destruction  into  twenty-two  short  lines,  thus  indi- 
cating that  it  was  a  matter  of  hardly  any  consequence  at  all. 
He  might  even  have  discovered  that  the  Padres  Esculapios  are 
chiefly  lay  brothers  of  the  Pious  Schools  (Escolapios) .  It 
does  not  appear  in  his  story  of  investigation  that  he  ever  con- 
sulted with  any  one  who  was  on  the  side  of  law  and  order,  or 
who  suffered  from  the  awful  series  of  events.  But  he  seems 
to  have  taken  particular  pains  to  get  in  touch  with  all  the 
Ferrerites  of  high  and  low  degree.  This  is  hardly  the  work 
of  an  unbiassed  investigator. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  that  Barcelona  had  about  600,000  pop- 
ulation, Mr.  Archer  sums  up  the  case  of  the  destruction  of 
the  schools,  colleges,  and  convents  of  the  religious  orders  with 
the  words :  "They  [the  religious  orders]  are,  in  truth,  almost 
entirely  outside  the  law ;  and  the  populace  in  moments  of 
revolt  is  apt  to  pronounce  and  execute  sentence  of  outlawry 
upon  them."  But  he  knows,  or  ought  to  know,  that  eight  or 
ten  thousand  rioters  and  revolutionists  in  a  city  of  that  size 
are  most  emphatically  not  "the  populace."  They  are,  how- 
ever, the  pliable  tools  which  master-minds  in  the  background 
can  most  easily  use ;  minds,  which,  when  use  has  been  made 
with  disastrous  result,  are  the  quickest  to  deny  any  participa- 
tion in  anarchy  or  riot. 

In  endeavoring  to  smooth  over  and  minimize  that  diabolic 
outrage,  the  disinterment  of  the  buried  nuns,  he  says :  "But 
it  is  no  less  certain  that  the  motive  of  this  profanation  was  a 
desire  to  ascertain  whether  there  was  any  sign  of  the  nuns 
having  been  tortured  or  even  buried  alive.  It  was  found,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  that  many  of  the  bodies  had  their  hands 
and  feet  bound  together,  and  although  this  is  susceptible  of 


52  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

a  quite  innocent  explanation,  it  was  not  unnaturally  taken  at 
first  as  confirming  the  most  sinister  rumors.  To  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  mind  it  would  seem  that  when  a  community  walls  itself 
in  from  the  world,  and  admits  no  intervention  of  the  law,  no 
public  inspection  of  its  practices,  whether  in  life  or  death,  it 
should  not  complain  if  suspicions  arise  as  to  the  nature  of 
these  practices.  The  alleged  design  of  the  rioters  was  to  take 
the  bodies  to  the  ayuntamiento  or  town-hall,  that  their  condi- 
tion might  be  publicly  verified."  This  is  a  fine  specimen  of 
an  unbiassed  statement !  But  he  did  not  take  the  trouble  to 
find  out  that  there  are  only  nine  cloistered  convents  of  women 
in  Barcelona,  and  that  the  other  religious  orders  are  unclois- 
tered  and  are  not  "walled  in  from  the  world,"  but  are  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Sisters  of  Charity,  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  Sisters  of  Mary  Immaculate,  Sisters  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  etc.,  who  go  in  and  out  of  their  houses  as 
their  duties  require,  and  who  are  seen  regularly  by  their 
friends,  scholars,  patients,  and  others  exactly  as  the  same  reli- 
gious orders  are  seen  here  in  New  York.  It  was  from  these 
that  the  bodies  were  taken.  If  Mr.  Archer  had  made  any 
inquiry  he  would  have  found  that  the  town-hall  of  Barcelona 
is  called  the  casa  consistorial,  and  that  it  is  in  the  centre 
of  the  old  city,  not  far  from  the  cathedral,  and  that  the  rioters 
carried  the  bodies  of  the  nuns  in  the  opposite  direction,  away 
from  the  town-hall.  His  explanation  does  not  explain ;  neither 
does  it  show  why  these  dead  bodies  were  treated  with  the  most 
revolting  grossness. 

But  it  would  take  too  long  to  go  over  his  article  in  extenso. 
In  every  portion  of  it  are  found  evidences  of  insinuation 
against  the  clergy,  nuns,  and  members  of  religious  orders  in 
general,  while  the  riotous  mob  and  its  anarchist  leaders  are 
uniformly  credited  with  good  intentions.  Certainly  this  is  not 
the  mere  detailing  of  facts ;  it  is  the  addition  of  coloring  mat- 
ter. It  is  not  the  calm  statement  of  an  unbiassed  investigator; 
it  more  nearly  inclines  towards  the  statement  of  a  prejudiced 
journalist,  who  desires  to  exploit  only  one  side  of  the  case. 
Take  as  an  example  the  sentence :  "The  fact  that  the  Cortes 
was  not  sitting  left  the  Maura  cabinet  the  unchecked  despots 
of  Spain ;  and  the  fact  that  Senor  Maura  declined  to  summon 
the  Cortes  showed  that  this  despotism  was  essential  to  the 
carrying  through  of  his  policy,"  which  sounds  so  unbiassed. 


McCLURE'S,  ARCHER  AND  FERRER     53 

An  ordinary  biassed  correspondent  of  the  usual  stamp  who  was 
sent  out  to  get  the  whole  story,  would  have  consulted  Senor 
Maura  himself,  and  let  him  give  his  own  explanation. 


II 

There  is  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  the  trial  and  con- 
demnation of  Ferrer  in  the  December  number  of  "McClure's," 
thereby  concluding  Mr.  Archer's  article  upon  the  subject.  Had 
that  portion  of  the  article  been  seen  by  me  at  the  time  I  penned 
the  remarks  in  the  last  number  of  this  magazine  ("Catholic 
World,"  Dec.  1910)  I  would  have  pointed  out  several  other 
instances  of  seeming  bias,  unfairness,  and  lack  of  informa- 
tion upon  the  part  of  the  author.  As  it  is,  one  must  con- 
fess that  the  article  as  a  whole  bears  out  nearly  all  that  was 
said  by  Catholics  regarding  the  death  of  Ferrer  or  any  part 
which  the  Church  or  the  religious  orders  might  have  taken 
to  effect  the  result.  In  his  second  article  Mr.  Archer, 
by  his  omission  of  any  statement  of  the  kind,  seems  to 
acquit  them,  as  he  concentrates  all  his  criticism  upon  the 
Spanish  government  and  military  officers.  There  is  no  wish 
on  the  part  of  any  Catholic  to  champion  the  civil  or  military 
administration  in  Spain;  its  faults  and  shortcomings  may  be 
manifold,  but  when  the  Church  and  her  religious  orders  are 
made  the  authors  and  instigators  of  the  prosecution  of  Ferrer, 
and  are  charged  directly  with  putting  him  to  death  without 
even  the  form  of  a  trial,  it  is,  indeed,  time  to  protest  vigor- 
ously and  to  examine  the  case  in  all  its  bearings. 

Certainly  Mr.  Archer's  article  shows  clearly,  even  from  the 
testimony  of  one  who  has  mixed  closely  with  Ferrerites  and 
kept  aloof  from  his  opponents,  that  such  expressions  as  were 
used  by  Mr.  Perceval  Gibbon  in  his  article  on  Ferrer  in 
"McClure's"  of  one  year  ago  are  untrue.  There  is  certainly  no 
basis  for  the  latter's  statement  that,  after  the  Madrid  episode, 
"the  government  and  the  orders  had  lost  the  first  round  of 
the  fight,  but  they  had  gained  experience,  which  served  them 
well  when  Ferrer  again  fell  into  their  hands.  This  time 
[Barcelona  trial]  they  improved  even  on  a  special  court  and 
no  jury;  they  abolished  witnesses  and  limited  the  discretion 
of  the  man  they  themselves  nominated  to  conduct  the  defense," 


i< 


54  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

or  the  other  statement  of  Gibbon,  in  concluding  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  trial  of  Ferrer :  "The  government  and  the  orders 
had  won  the  second  round  of  the  game.  The  dice  were  loaded, 
it  is  true ;  the  game  was  not  honest" ;  to  say  nothing  of  the 
dozens  of  innuendos  scattered  throughout  the  earlier  article. 
For  this  much  we  must  be  thankful  to  Mr.  Archer;  he  has 
amply  proved  that  there  was  a  trial  and  that  there  were  wit- 
nesses, and  he  does  not  lay  the  blame  and  execration  on  the 
orders  and  the  Church. 

But  Mr.  Archer,  as  was  pointed  out  in  the  December  number 
of  this  magazine,  does  not  take  the  trouble  to  ascertain  all  the 
facts,  or  divest  himself  of  his  prejudices,  even  where  he  might 
easily  have  done  so.  This  causes  him  to  overlook  the  obvious 
and  easily  ascertainable,  and  very  justly  casts  discredit  upon 
the  efficiency  and  impartiality  of  his  work.  A  few  instances 
of  this  kind  in  his  concluding  article  may  be  pointed  out. 

For  instance,  he  drags  in  "La  Ley  de  Jurisdicciones,"  which 
has  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  the  case.  It  certainly  did  not 
apply  to  Ferrer  and  the  Barcelona  riots,  although  by  its  terms 
it  might  well  have  done  so.  It  is  a  law  defining  the  jurisdiction 
of  military  tribunals  for  offenses  committed  (a)  directly 
against  the  army  or  navy,  as  for  example  by  soldiers  on  duty 
or  in  uniform;  or  (b)  where  it  may  be  doubtful  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  offense,  which  essentially  may  be  an  offense  by 
civil  law,  but  committed  where  the  army  or  navy  are  already 
in  control.  But  it  is  a  law  applying  directly  to  acts  committed 
in  peaceful  times.  We  have  almost  analogous  provisions  in  re- 
gard to  Federal  and  State  jurisdictions,  and  an  offense  com- 
mitted in  the  corridor  of  a  LTnited  States  court  house  or  post- 
office,  or  the  boundary  line  thereof,  immediately  divests  the 
State  courts  of  jurisdiction  and  turns  the  prisoner  over  to  the 
United  States  courts.  It  must  be  remembered  that  Barcelona 
was  under  martial  law  from  July  26,  1909,  until  near  Janu- 
ary, 1910;  the  civil  powers  were  superseded,  and  the  whole 
city  was  under  the  control  of  the  military  commander.  The 
writer  was  present  in  Barcelona  when  General  Valeriano  Wey- 
ler  succeeded  the  commander,  Don  Luis  de  Santiago  Manescau, 
who  had  issued  the  July  proclamation  which  suspended  all 
civil  authority  and  declared  the  city  in  state  of  war  and  subject 
to  the  provisions  of  the  Military  Code.  Articles  3  and  4  of 
his  proclamation  read : 


McCLURE'S,  ARCHER  AND  FERRER     55 

Article  3.  Jurisdiction  of  offenses  affecting  public  order  in 
any  political  or  social  sense  comes  under  my  authority;  and 
the  authors  [autores,  Mr.  Archer's  favorite  word]  of  them 
can  be  tried  by  summary  court-martial. 

Article  4.  Persons  publishing  notices  or  directions  in  any 
form  whatsoever  tending  to  disobedience  of  military  orders 
will  be  considered  as  guilty  of  sedition ;  as  well  as  those  who 
make  attempts  against  freedom  of  labor,  or  cause  impediment 
or  destruction  of  railroads,  street  car  lines,  telegraph  or  tele- 
phone lines,  or  any  other  conductor  of  electricity,  or  water 
mains  or  gas  pipes. 

Mr.  Archer  does  not  tell  us  of  these  things ;  yet  he  might 
easily  have  inquired  about  them.  They  were  the  reason  why 
Ferrer  was  tried  by  court-martial,  and  extra  indulgence  was 
given  to  him,  since  he  might  have  been  tried  summarily  instead 
of  having  a  formal  trial  of  twenty-eight  days,  the  testimony 
of  which  filled  1,200  written  pages,  not  one  of  which  Mr. 
Archer  seems  to  have  examined,  contenting  himself  solely 
with  the  resume  in  the  "Juicio  Ordinario"  (which  he  calls 
the  "Process"),  nor  does  he  seem  to  have  examined  the  fifty 
odd  packets  or  files  of  exhibits  likewise  adduced  in  the  case.  It 
is  very  evident,  therefore,  that  the  "Ley  de  Jurisdicciones"  is 
simply  lugged  in  to  make  coloring  matter. 

Again  in  eliciting  sympathy  for  Soledad  Villafranca,  the  mis- 
tress of  Ferrer,  and  blaming  the  authorities  for  not  taking  her, 
and  her  friends'  evidence,  he  says : 

Meanwhile  Soledad  Villafranca  was  eating  her  heart  out  at 
Teruel,  in  total  ignorance  of  what  was  passing  at  Barcelona. 
She  and  some  of  her  comrades  in  exile  were  the  persons  who 
could  best  speak  as  to  Ferrer's  employment  of  his  time  during 
the  week  of  revolt ;  and  they  naturally  expected,  day  after  day, 
to  be  called  upon  for  their  evidence.  This  expectation  was 
encouraged  (unofficially,  of  course,  and  very  likely  in  good 
faith)  by  their  jailers.  A  member  of  the  Palace  police  .  .  . 
bade  her  wait  patiently  and  the  summons  would  come  in 
due  time. 

Mr.  Archer  does  not  tell  us  that  the  provisions  of  the  Span- 
ish military  code  forbid  the  examination  of  the  prisoner's 
family  and  relatives  as  witnesses  against  him  by  the  prosecu- 
tion. He  does  not  tell  us  either  that  that  Code  provides  (Arti- 
cle 479)  that  the  prisoner  shall  be  present  at  the  examinations 
of  witnesses,  even  though  he  be  held  incomunicado,  nor  that 
(Articles  362  and  365)  he  can  reply  in  writing  or  orally  at 
every  moment  of  the  trial  (sumario)  to  any  accusation  made 


56  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

by  any  official,  and  that  (Article  465)  he  may  give  his  declara- 
tions or  testimony  as  many  times  as  he  likes ;  although  Mr. 
Archer  does  admit  that,  according  to  Article  458,  the  accused 
may  testify  "without  being  required  to  take  an  oath,"  thus  re- 
lieving a  prisoner  from  the  charge  of  perjury  if  his  testimony 
be  false.  This  last  privilege  Mr.  Archer  curiously  turns  into 
an  excuse  for  Ferrer's  obvious  falsehood  as  to  having  been  at 
the  Casa  del  Pueblo  and  having  there  met  with  Ardid.  The 
sumario  may  be  extended  (Article  548)  for  further  testimony, 
the  ratification  of  witnesses,  and  the  summons  of  further  wit- 
nesses may  be  requested  by  the  accused  in  cases  of  "common 
offenses,"  or  for  the  "further  taking  of  proof  which  he  thinks 
would  protect  his  rights"  (Article  548).  Mr.  Archer  speaks 
of  the  "common  offenses,"  but  kindly  omits  the  latter  provi- 
sions. To  say  that  the  prosecution  was  bound  to  summon  wit- 
nesses for  the  defense,  where  the  accused  and  his  counsel 
failed  to  call  them,  or  to  request  them  to  be  called,  when  testi- 
mony was  being  taken,  is  somewhat  of  a  novelty. 

The  Auditor  pointed  this  out  in  his  dictamen  or  opinion 
rendered  in  the  case  ("Process,"  p.  59)  : 

If,  as  the  defense  asserts,  the  affidavits  of  Soledad  Villa- 
franca  and  the  other  associates  of  the  accused,  now  residing  at 
Teruel,  could  have  exculpated  Ferrer  Guardia,  they  had  time 
to  make  such  affidavits  in  the  twenty-eight  days  during  which 
the  sumario  lasted,  and  besides  the  accused  might  have  sum- 
moned them  in  his  investigations ;  but  they  would  have  been 
required  to  submit  to  examination  in  the  same  manner  in 
which  all  such  persons  were  interrogated  who  had  been  cited 
in  them.  But  not  having  requested  any  such  testimony  until 
after  the  case  had  been  taken  up  in  plenario,  it  was  not  pos- 
sible to  accede  to  his  petition  on  account  of  the  prohibition 
of  paragraph  5  of  Article  552  of  our  Code. 

In  other  words,  the  defense  did  not  answer  orally  or  in 
writing  to  the  accusations  and  proofs  adduced,  did  not  offer 
witnesses  in  his  behalf  during  twenty-eight  days,  because,  as 
the  Auditor  points  out,  they  would  have  been  examined,  per- 
haps, so  as  to  incriminate  themselves,  him,  or  others.  But  they 
waited  until  the  other  witnesses  were  dismissed  or  dispersed 
and  then  made  an  offer  themselves  to  testify — it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  the  accused  ever  called  for  them  orally  or  in  writing. 
Mr.  Archer  gives  us  to  understand  that  the  court-martial 
should  have  halted  its  procedure,  which  had  got  past  the  point 


McCLURE'S,  ARCHER  AND  FERRER     57 

of  taking  testimony,  and  of  its  own  motion  called  witnesses 
in  defense  of  Ferrer. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  Ferrer  was  a  man  of  some  edu- 
cation— he  is  lauded  as  being  a  man  of  learning  and  foresight 
by  his  partisans — that  he  wrote  numerous  letters,  and  that 
even  in  prison  he  was  permitted  to  write  his  own  account  of 
the  matter,  which  was  sent  to  Charles  Malato  on  October  i, 
1909,  as  Mr.  Archer  shows  in  a  foot-note  in  the  November 
number  of  "McClure's."     Hence  he  could  easily  have  written 
his  defense  for  the  court,  detailing  exactly  where  he  was  during 
every  day  of  the  riots,  yet  he  did  nothing  of  the  kind.     Mr. 
Archer  makes  much  of  the  foul  dungeon  or  cell  in  which  he 
says  Ferrer  was  confined  in  the  fortress  of  Montjuich.    Yet 
my  friend,  Don  Casimiro  Comas,  a  lawyer  of  Barcelona,  says 
Ferrer  was  confined  in  the  Model  Prison  ("Carcel  Celular") 
of  Barcelona  (which  apparently  is  as  much  up-to-date  as  the 
Tombs  Prison  of  New  York),  where  his  trial  also  took  place, 
until  he  was  sentenced.     Even  Mr.  Archer  in  the  November 
"McClure's"  gives  the  date  of  his  letter  to  Malato  as  the  "Car- 
eel  Celular,  October  i,  1909."    But  these  facts  are  kept  in  the 
background  in  his  article. 

Later  on  he  proceeds  to  review  in  extenso  the  evidence  in  the 
case,  carefully  separating  it  into  diflferent  portions,  thus  break- 
ing the  connection  between  events.  One  hardly  knows  just 
what  to  make  of  his  analysis,  for  it  is  difificult  to  know  whether 
he  is  reviewing  the  trial  of  Ferrer  or  reviewing  the  methods  of 
Spanish  judicial  procedure.  If  Ferrer  had  been  tried  by  an 
ordinary  Spanish  criminal  court,  with  a  jury,  the  method  of 
procedure  and  the  taking  of  evidence  would  have  been  the 
same.  Of  course,  in  no  event  could  Ferrer  have  been  tried  by 
the  usual  processes  of  English  or  American  law.  He  would 
have  had  to  be  tried  according  to  Spanish  law  and  procedure, 
and  hence  all  criticism  of  the  method  or  procedure  is  entirely 
beside  the  point.     It  is  like  "going  out  and  swearing  at  the 

court." 

For  instance,  he  speaks  of  "unsupported  opinion  and  hear- 
say." That  is  allowable  under  the  Spanish  rules  of  evidence, 
and  that  kind  of  evidence  would  have  been  received  in  the  ordi- 
nary criminal  trials  in  Spain.  We  have,  in  America  and  Eng- 
land, the  rules  of  evidence  so  refined  that  nothing  but  direct 
evidence — with  certain  exceptions — is  received;  and  hearsay 


58  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

and  opinion  evidence  (other  than  that  of  certain  experts)  is 
completely  barred.  But  upon  the  continent  of  Europe,  under 
the  Roman  law,  it  is  not  so ;  there  they  say  that  the  same  meth- 
ods that  a  man  takes  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life  to  establish  a 
fact,  whether  by  hearsay  testimony  or  not,  should  be  followed 
to  establish  a  fact  in  court.  They  point  out  that  the  business 
and  reputation  of  every  man  in  the  world  would  go  by  the  board 
were  direct  evidence  alone  required  in  the  affairs  of  everyday 
life.  I  am  not  arguing  the  point,  I  am  only  stating  the  prac- 
tice. This  practice  Mr.  Archer  seems  entirely  to  overlook, 
and  desires  thereby  to  score  a  point,  in  judging  a  Spanish  trial 
by  comparison  with  the  standards  set  up  by  the  English  com- 
mon law. 

When,  however,  the  evidence  is  direct  evidence,  Mr.  Archer 
undertakes  to  step,  in  imagination,  upon  the  bench  of  the  trial 
judges  at  the  court-martial,  sift  the  evidence  and  decide  that 
it  is  not  against  Ferrer.  Even  our  appellate  courts  here  do  not 
do  that,  at  least  not  in  theory  of  law.  They  always  say  that  the 
trier  of  fact,  whether  jury,  referee,  or  judge,  saw  the  witnesses, 
was  nearer  to  the  facts,  and  knew  more  about  them  than  per- 
sons who  see  them  in  print  long  afterward.  Hence  we  can 
very  well  assume  that  the  seven  judges  of  the  Ferrer  court- 
martial  knew  better  what  weight  to  give  to  the  direct  evidence 
then,  than  Mr.  Archer  could  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  year. 

This  will  be  more  apparent  when  we  come  to  take  up  the 
specific  case  of  the  testimony  of  Don  Francisco  de  Paula  Coll- 
deforns,  who  testified  that  between  seven-thirty  and  eight- 
thirty  in  the  evening  of  July  2.^,  1909,  he  saw  a  man,  whom  he 
recognized  from  photographs  as  Ferrer,  "captaining  a  group" 
near  the  Lyceum  Theatre  on  the  Rambla  in  Barcelona.  I  have 
had  the  very  spot  pointed  out  to  me  by  a  cabman.  One  may 
very  well  recognize  Mr.  Roosevelt,  or  Mr.  Taft,  from  having 
seen  their  photographs,  although  one  had  never  laid  eyes  on 
them  before.  We  must  remember  that  Ferrer  had  not  long  be- 
fore been  implicated  in  the  bomb  explosion  in  Madrid,  when  the 
attempt  was  made  on  the  lives  of  King  Alfonso  and  Queen  Vic- 
toria, and  his  portrait  was  published  dozens  of  times  in  all  the 
Spanish  and  French  illustrated  papers,  and  he  was  as  well 
known  by  portraiture  as  any  political  or  aviation  celebrity  is 
here.  Hence  it  was  not  such  an  unusual  thing  for  a  newspaper- 
man to  be  able  to  recognize  him  from  a  photograph. 


McCLURE'S,  ARCHER  AND  FERRER     59 

Mr,  Archer  makes  much  of  the  fact  that  the  recognition  took 
place  between  seven-thirty  and  eight-thirty,  according  to  the 
testimony,  and  reasons  that  it  was  too  dark  to  see  any  man's 
features  then.  Now  the  sun  went  down  in  Barcelona  about 
seven-twenty  during  the  week  of  July  26th,  and  twilight  lasts 
until  nearly  nine  o'clock  at  that  period  of  the  year.  Barcelona 
is  situated  somewhere  near  the  latitude  of  Providence  or  Bos- 
ton ;  and  one  can  test  the  point  any  time  between  July  26  and 
31  of  the  year. 

Again  Mr.  Archer,  in  reviewing  this  evidence,  says  that 
Mongat,  where  "Mas  Germinal"  is  situated,  is  "eleven  dusty 
miles"  from  Barcelona.  It  is  only  eleven  kilometres,  so  Mr. 
Archer's  pen  must  have  slipped  unwittingly,  as  that  would  be 
but  about  six  miles  from  the  Rambla  or  Plaza  de  Colon,  in  the 
very  heart  of  Barcelona.  He  also  says  that,  "the  authorities 
had  carefully  refused  to  admit  the  evidence  of  Ferrer's  family, 
who  (now,  in  1910)  assert  that  he  never  quitted  Mas  Ger- 
minal that  day."  Yet  on  the  very  morning  of  the  27th  he  took 
Francisco  Domenech,  the  barber,  to  breakfast  at  Badalona, 
which  is  a  village  two  miles  or  more  from  Mongat  on  the 
way  to  Barcelona.  To  walk  all  the  way  from  Mongat  to  Barce- 
lona requires  only  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  hours.  Hence 
it  may  very  well  be  that  Ferrer,  now  that  things  were  becoming 
lively  in  Barcelona,  stayed  away  for  a  large  portion  of  the 
day — the  heated  portion,  it  will  be  perceived — and  in  the  after- 
noon went  into  Barcelona.  His  "family"  could  easily  swear 
he  was  at  home  that  day,  and  Senor  Colldeforns  likewise  see 
him  "captaining  a  group"  on  the  Rambla  in  the  city.  Ferrer, 
with  his  experience  in  the  Morral  bomb  case,  and  in  previous 
cases,  would  naturally  be  strong  on  making  out  an  alibi. 

And  just  here  Mr.  Archer  has  put  in  a  piece  of  innuendo. 
There  is  nothing  in  this  second  article  which  directly  asserts 
any  connection  between  the  Church  or  the  orders  and  Ferrer's 
trial.  But  he  found  it  necessary  to  put  a  head-line,  "The 
Catholic  Journalist,"  and  to  repeat  the  phrase  two  or  three 
times  in  that  part  of  the  article.  It  supplies  an  apparent  miss- 
ing link,  because  it  connects  the  Catholic  Church  in  some  indefi- 
nite way  with  the  prosecution.  Well,  the  army  officers  were 
Catholics,  the  court  officials  were  Catholics,  all  the  witnesses 
were  Catholics  where  they  were  not  the  anarchist  and  atheist 
companions  of  Ferrer.     Why  single  out  the  journalist  who 


6o  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

saw  Ferrer?  It  seems  as  if  it  were  done  with  the  motive  of 
accenting  the  Church  as  a  prosecuting  witness. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  "El  Siglo  Futuro"  is  not  a  church  paper. 
It  is  the  Carlist  paper,  and  merely  incidentally,  as  part  and 
parcel  of  its  politics  of  Throne  and  Church,  puts  forward 
CathoHcism.  Of  course  the  newspaper  man  was  "a  Catholic 
journahst,"  but  to  have  called  him  a  Carlist  would  have  left 
out  much  of  the  peculiar  attitude  of  Mr.  Archer. 

Then  he  insinuates  that  the  authorities  put  Ferrer  in  such 
a  woe-begone  garb  in  the  rueda,  or  group  of  prisoners,  that 
his  recognition  by  Seiior  Colldeforns  was  a  foregone  conclu- 
sion. In  other  words,  he  charges  deception  on  the  part  of 
the  court,  without  a  single  fact  to  support  it.  The  law  of 
recognizing  and  identifying  the  accused  is  plain  (Articles  422 
and  424)  :  "The  rueda  must  be  constituted  of  at  least  six 
persons  of  similar  appearance  to  the  person  who  is  to  be  iden- 
tified." As  Ferrer  was  completely  shaven  when  captured,  and 
if  he  were  allowed  no  toilet  accessories  while  in  prison,  as 
Mr.  Archer  declares,  he  must  have  been  covered  with  a  gray, 
stubby  beard,  which  would  necessarily  make  his  identification 
amid  six  others  similar  to  him  very  difficult  to  Senor  Collde- 
forns. 

So  much  for  the  analysis  and  reasoning  indulged  in  by  Mr. 
Archer.  When  his  whole  article  is  gone  over  in  this  manner, 
the  fact  stands  out  pre-eminently  that  there  was  evidence 
against  Ferrer  which  even  Mr.  Archer  cannot  put  out  of  the 
way.  Space  forbids  a  complete  analysis  of  the  entire  article, 
and  a  discussion  of  Mr.  Archer's  statement  that  "the  documen- 
tary proofs  consisted  of  two  papers."  In  fact,  there  were  fifty 
odd  files  of  dockets  of  them  offered  in  evidence,  consisting  of 
correspondence,  circulars,  reports,  and  memoranda  of  all  kinds. 

Yet  even  with  Mr.  Archer's  special  pleading — for  he  does 
not  seem  to  have  endeavored  to  interview  Seiior  Colldeforns, 
or  to  analyze  the  dockets  of  the  documentary  evidence,  or  even 
look  over  the  original  evidence  testified  and  sworn  to  by  the 
witnesses — he  concludes  that :  "I  am  not  at  all  sure  that,  had 
Ferrer  been  fairly  tried  under  reasonable  rules  of  evidence 
(query,  under  English  common-law  evidence),  he  would  have 
got  oflF  scot-free." 

This  is  certainly  a  vindication  from  the  rampant  assertions 
that  were  made  that  the  Catholic  Church  had  "railroaded" 


McCLURE'S,  ARCHER  AND  FERRER     6i 

Ferrer  to  death.  Judicial  errors  may  be  made  in  any  country; 
but  it  is  quite  another  thing  to  say  that  a  person  was  done  to 
death  without  trial  and  without  witnesses.  We  Catholics  only 
ask  that  in  these  matters  the  same  yardstick  be  used  to  measure 
events  in  Spain  as  would  be  used  to  measure  events  in  New 
York  or  Oklahoma. 


Ill 

I  have  been  asked  whether  Ferrer's  previous  character  and 
teachings  may  not  have  had  something  to  do  with  his  con- 
demnation. This  question  cannot  be  answered  by  any  one 
outside  of  Spain,  for  he  did  not  keep  himself  by  any  means 
aloof  from  the  events  which  counted  against  him.  There  were 
some  six  revolutionary  events  before  the  July  riots ;  he  was 
on  hand  at  every  one  of  them.  It  may  have  been  a  coincidence, 
but  it  was  a  coincidence  that  had  a  sinister  aspect.  One  in- 
stance is  the  bomb  explosion  of  Alay  31,  1906,  when  the  King 
and  his  young  bride  narrowly  escaped  instant  death  on  the 
Calle  Mayor,  Madrid.  The  man  who  threw  the  bomb,  which 
killed  ten  persons,  and  who  was  executed  for  it,  was  Mateo 
Morral,  a  professor  in  La  Escuela  Moderna,  placed  in  that 
position  in  Madrid  by  Ferrer.  Ferrer,  at  that  time,  was  in 
Madrid,  living  in  the  same  block  with  Morral,  and  was  visited 
from  time  to  time  by  him  and  various  noted  anarchists.  Fer- 
rer was  arrested,  along  with  many  others,  and  kept  for  eight 
months  in  the  Model  Prison  in  Madrid,  but,  while  many  cir- 
cumstances pointing  to  his  complicity  were  brought  out,  no 
evidence  directly  connecting  him  with  the  bomb-throwing  was 
discovered.  It  is  absolutely  untrue  that  there  was  a  special 
court  organized  to  try  him  on  that  occasion.  But  these  ques- 
tionable facts  and  circumstances  may  have  weighed  against 
him  when  it  came  to  a  question  of  clemency. 

Ferrer  was  not  a  man  of  much  education.  He  was  the 
founder  of  a  school,  but  never  wrote  a  book.  His  writings  in 
correspondence  and  his  verses  are  exhibitions  of  passion  rather 
than  reason.  He  was  the  type  of  man  who  is  leader  by  virtue 
of  his  ability  to  arrange  things  and  provide  the  means.  Of 
his  life  I  need  say  little.  He  was  born  in  Alella,  in  the  province 
of  Barcelona,  and  became  a  railway  brakeman,  and  then  con- 
ductor, had  some  trouble  in  smuggling  on  the  French  frontier. 


62  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

and  then  went  to  Paris,  where  he  fell  in  with  anarchists  and 
imbibed  their  doctrines.  He  quarrelled  with  his  wife,  deserted 
her,  and  afterwards  obtained  a  separation,  and  left  her  to 
take  care  of  his  three  children.  All  were  disinherited  in  the 
will,  which  he  made  at  Montjuich,  just  before  his  death,  and 
his  fortune  left  to  Soledad  Villafranca,  his  mistress,  who  was 
younger  than  his  eldest  daughter.  He  died  a  comparatively 
rich  man,  for  he  obtained  from  Mile.  Ernestine  Meunier,  a 
pious  old  lady  of  Paris,  money  to  found  children's  asylums 
in  Barcelona,  which  were  to  be  operated  under  Catholic  aus- 
pices as  religious  institutions.  He  even  gave  her  a  statue  of 
Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel,  in  token  of  how  he  was  conduct- 
ing them.  At  her  death,  she  left  him  property  in  Paris,  upon 
which  he  realized  over  a  million  francs.  She  died  a  Catholic, 
putting  that  very  expression  in  her  will,  and  left  legacies  for 
Masses  for  her  soul. 

After  her  death,  he  changed  his  asylums  into  La  Escuela 
Moderna  (the  Modern  School),  a  name  which  he  took  over 
bodily  from  a  greater  man,  the  historian,  Don  Rafael  Altamira 
y  Crevea,  one  of  the  foremost  professors  of  the  University  of 
Oviedo,  who  had  used  it  for  many  years  and  had  used  it  in  a 
religious  sense.  After  the  bomb-throwing  episode  of  1906, 
the  various  branches  of  La  Escuela  Modema  were  closed,  and 
a  new  name,  La  Escuela  de  la  Casa  del  Pueblo,  was  adopted. 
A  bookselling  and  journalistic  venture  was  added  to  it.  Books 
from  the  French  and  new  books  written  in  Spanish,  in  which 
all  mention  of  God  or  country  were  omitted,  were  compiled. 
As  a  rule,  these  books  are  inferior  to  the  text-books  used  in 
the  Catholic  and  government  schools,  as  a  comparison  of  the 
two  sets  of  books  upon  any  subject  will  demonstrate.  His 
chief  instructor  for  the  girls'  schools  was  Mme.  Clementine 
Jacquinet.  She  was  a  French  anarchist,  who  kept  a  school  at 
Sakha,  in  Egypt,  for  several  years.  This  school  was  closed 
by  the  British  authorities  and  Mme.  Jacquinet  banished  from 
Egypt  on  account  of  its  anarchistic  character.  She  describes 
herself  as  "an  atheist,  scientific  materialist,  and  anti-religious, 
because  religion,  dividing  men,  constitutes  the  real  obstacle  to 
progress,  an  anti-militarist  and  anarchist."  She  had  a  large 
share  in  preparing  the  school  books  for  La  Escuela  Modema. 

A  glance  at  some  of  the  teachings  of  the  text-books  of 
La  Escuela  Moderna,  intended  for  the  minds  of  tender  young 


McCLURE'S,  ARCHER  AND  FERRER     63 

children,  shows  them  a  Httle  too  advanced  for  use  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  Third  Reader,  known  as  "Patriotism  and  Colo- 
nization," we  read  (page  12)  : 

"Drop  the  soldiers'  musket  as  though  it  were  hot  iron! 
For  this  refusal  [to  drill]  you  will  be  treated  as  rebels,  as 
cowards  and  as  lacking  in  noble  sentiments.  But  what  of  that  ? 
Do  not  shoulder  the  musket!  If  they  point  out  to  you  that 
an  enemy  is  invading  the  country,  why,  let  him  invade !  Even 
if  they  show  you  that  he  is  tearing  down  the  throne  or  the 
presidential  chair!    What  do  you  care  for  those  trifles?" 

On  page  15:  "Don't  get  excited  for  the  sake  of  the  flag! 
It  is  nothing  but  three  yards  of  cloth  stuck  on  a  pole !" 

On  page  33 :  "One's  country  is  not  made  up  by  territorial 
boundaries  nor  by  the  citizens  who  dwell  therein,  no,  they  are 
mere  despots  who  exploit  those  ideas." 

On  page  80:  "The  words,  'country,'  'flag,'  and  'family,' 
do  not  excite  in  me  more  than  hypocritical  echoes  of  wind  and 
sound." 

On  page  84,  and  following:  "When  I  think  of  the  evils  I 
have  seen  and  suffered,  which  proceed  from  national  hatreds, 
I  recognize  that  they  all  rest  upon  a  gross  lie,  the  love  of  one's 
country." 

"The  flag  is  but  the  symbol  of  tyranny  and  misery." 

"Industry  and  commerce  are  the  names  by  which  they  [mer- 
chants] cover  up  their  robberies." 

"Marriage  is  prostitution  sanctified  by  the  church  and  pro- 
tected by  the  state." 

"The  family  is  one  of  the  principal  obstacles  to  the  enlight- 
enment of  men." 

In  the  "Bulletin  of  the  Modern  School,"  Vol.  V,  No.  i,  page 
5  (1908),  an  article  reads:  "Religion  has  retarded  the  evolu- 
tion of  man,  has  prolonged  his  primitive  weakness,  has  made 
him  retrograde  to  his  ancestral  brutishness,  has  cultivated  and 
augmented  the  terrors  arising  from  ignorance  of  phenomena, 
the  miseries  which  those  sufifer  who  do  not  know  how  to  mod- 
ify natural  effects  to  their  advantage,  and  the  injuries  which 
are  the  results  of  general  incapacity  and  of  various  obsessions ; 
and  finally  it  has  been  wonderfully  united  with  brute  force  to 
assist  the  material  and  moral  authority  of  the  violent  and  the 
astute  as  the  oppressors  of  the  great  mass  of  humanity." 

And  on  page  6  following,  in  speaking  of  the  separation  of 


64  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Church  and  State,  it  adds :  ''Separate  two  authorities  equally 
hateful !     It  is  imperative  to  suppress  both  of  them !" 

In  the  "Compendium  of  Universal  History,"  written  by 
Mme.  Clementine  Jacquinet,  we  find  the  following  gems — on 
page  ^/:  "It  is  believed  that  Jesus  Christ  was-  a  Buddhist 
monk,  who  came  from  Mt.  Carmel,  and  who  devoted  himself 
to  preaching  the  religion  of  Buddha  to  the  Jews." 

On  page  40:  "Would  not  God  have  done  better  to  have 
begun  by  making  man  as  he  desired  him  to  be?  Can  you  con- 
ceive of  a  father  communicating  to  his  son  a  terrible  disease 
for  the  pleasure  of  curing  it  afterwards  and  then  proclaiming 
himself  thereafter  as  his  benefactor  ?  This  God  of  the  Chris- 
tians is  a  wicked  God,  which  every  honest  conscience  ought  to 
reject ;  or,  if  not,  he  is  a  useless  one,  powerless  to  prevent  evil 
or  to  assure  the  good  which  one  desires." 

On  page  41 :  "We  desire  to  observe  here  that  the  only  act 
of  justice  accomplished  by  this  God  was  to  get  himself  killed 
as  the  author  of  all  the  evils  which  men  suffer." 

On  page  42,  speaking  of  the  crucifixion:  "What  does  the 
deed  represent?  Why,  the  part  of  a  low-minded,  ambitious 
person,  infatuated  with  the  very  idea  of  his  own  wisdom." 

On  page  46 :  "We  will  always  see  Christianity,  in  the  course 
of  history,  face  to  face  with  progress  in  order  to  obstruct  the 
latter's  path;  with  a  negation  of  science  because  it  impeaches 
dogma;  supporting  firmly  absolutism,  inequality  of  the  social 
classes ;  as  an  oppressor  of  the  human  conscience  in  its  torture- 
chamber  of  false  morality,  with  a  hateful  flag  in  whose  shadow 
every  crime  has  been  committed,  as  a  vampire  always  thirsting 
for  blood  to  whom  milHons  of  victims  have  been  sacrificed !" 

In  the  work  called  "Nature  and  the  Social  Problem,"  writ- 
ten by  Enrique  Lluria,  used  in  the  advanced  schools,  the 
preface  (page  7)  explains  the  design  and  tendency  of  the 
work: 

"At  the  end  of  two  generations  in  which  catechism  is  not 
taught,  and  it  is  scientifically  explained  that  what  is  called 
creation  is  but  the  uncreated  existence  of  the  universe,  only 
the  atavistic  eflfects  of  a  religious  belief  will  remain.  There 
will  be  left  then  only  its  annihilation,  and  when  its  atrophy 
commences  its  annihilation  will  be  rapid.  For  this  purpose 
the  Modern  School  of  Barcelona  has  been  founded,  its  library 
and  free  schools  created  to  extend  the  work." 


McCLURE'S,  ARCHER  AND  FERRER     65 

Other  extracts  from  the  various  text-books  might  be  multi- 
plied to  show  the  animus  of  the  authors,  and  stabs  and  side 
remarks  at  Christianity  and  Christian  civilization  abound  all 
through  them.  Observe  that  it  is  not  against  the  Catholic 
faith  or  belief,  as  such,  that  these  are  directed;  it  is  against 
all  religion  and  religious  ideas,  though  Christianity  is  especially 
aimed  at,  that  the  attack  of  this  remarkable  series  of  text-books 
and  the  teaching  of  the  Modern  School  was  directed. 

The  Constitution  of  Spain  (Article  13,  Section  1)  guaran- 
tees the  right  of  free  speech  and  free  press,  and,  although  the 
Modern  School,  in  its  various  branches,  was  founded  at  Bar- 
celona in  1902,  and  since  in  other  cities,  the  teachers  and  writ- 
ers of  it  have  never  been  molested  or  called  before  any  tribu- 
nal for  their  speeches  or  writings ;  in  the  city  of  Barcelona  they 
even  made  application  to  a  Catholic  city  council  for  a  portion 
of  the  public  funds  for  the  support  of  their  schools  and  the 
application  was  granted.  For  eight  years,  therefore,  Ferrer 
taught  what  he  wanted  in  his  schools  and  no  one  interfered 
with  him.  It  was  only  when  he,  Morral  and  some  militant 
teachers  in  the  Modern  Schools  participated  in  riots,  arson  and 
slaughter,  that  they  were  taken  before  the  courts  and  tried. 
There  are  plenty  of  teachers  in  La  Escuela  Moderna  who  have 
never  been  molested,  notwithstanding  the  bloodshed  of  the 
Barcelona  riots.  In  this  country  such  occurrences  would  likely 
bring  them  under  more  than  police  surveillance. 

Events  in  Barcelona  have  resulted  in  a  strong  movement 
among  its  people  to  counteract  the  influence  of  the  Modem 
Schools  and  in  the  establishment  of  anti-anarchistic  schools. 
The  month  of  December  last  saw  a  great  outpouring  of  teach- 
ers, professors  and  others  in  the  Educational  Congress  held 
there  in  the  Palace  of  Fine  Arts  the  week  after  Christmas  to 
devise  plans  and  find  means  for  the  building  and  equipment 
of  newer  and  finer  schools  to  take  the  place  of  those  destroyed 
by  the  rioters. 


THE  LATEST  TACTICS  AS  TO  SPAIN 

Letter  to  "America" 

THE  defamers  of  the  Church  in  Spain  have  devised  cer- 
tain new  tactics,  of  which  the  readers  of  "America" 
should  be  informed,  for  they  are  sure  to  appear  in 
some  shape  in  our  daily  press.  A  writer,  who  signs  himself  as 
"Gerundio,  a  former  monk,"  has  just  published  a  book  in  Bar- 
celona, entitled  "El  tormento  en  los  Conventos"  (Torture  in 
the  Convents),  and  the  press  agencies  there  are  kindly  sup- 
plying the  Spanish  radical  papers  and  the  entire  European 
press  with  copious  extracts  from  the  book.  In  it  are  given 
alleged  statistics  of  the  clergy,  religious  orders,  and  the  wild- 
est stories  of  confinement  and  torture  in  the  convents  and  re- 
ligious houses,  the  kind  with  which  we  used  to  be  regaled  in 
this  country  in  the  flourishing  A.  P.  A.  times  of  not  so  long 
ago.  Doubtless  after  they  have  been  repeated  in  the  European 
press  of  different  countries,  they  will  be  solemnly  copied  into 
our  papers,  as  showing  how  Spain  is  wholly  under  the  domina- 
tion of  the  monk  and  the  clerical  to  a  far  greater  degree  than 
was  ever  known  in  any  other  country  in  the  world. 

It  is  hardly  worth  while  to  go  over  the  entire  work,  which 
starts  out  with  an  assumption  of  historical  learning,  and  pur- 
ports to  give  the  history  of  monasticism  and  religious  orders 
in  Spain  from  the  Napoleonic  years  of  1808-14  down  to  the 
present  time.  Scattered  all  through  the  book  are  statistics  of 
the  various  periods,  showing  the  growth  of  the  monastic  orders 
or  congregations,  and  if  the  figures  given  there  are  no  more 
correct  than  the  ones  I  shall  presently  mention,  the  whole  book 
is  little  more  than  a  mass  of  misinformation.  No  doubt  we 
shall  later  hear  of  these  things  from  the  eminent  gentlemen, 
who  do  not  read  Spanish  and  who  do  not  examine  the  Spanish 
official  reports,  in  their  narration  of  things  they  have  found 
out  regarding  the  religious  situation  in  Spain.  For  this  reason 
I  have  deemed  it  proper  to  communicate  to  you  in  advance 
some  of  the  information  contained  in  this  book  and  in  the 
press  excerpts  from  it. 

66 


THE  LATEST  TACTICS  AS  TO  SPAIN  67 

After  speaking  about  the  religious  orders  in  Spain  and  the 
activity  of  the  Jesuits  in  particular,  in  order  to  give  point  to  his 
remarks,  the  author  then  continues : 

"The  struggle  of  the  government  with  the  religious  orders 
ended  by  the  former's  capitulation  to  them.  To-day  they  hold 
a  position  in  Spain  in  regard  to  number,  property  and  political 
influence  such  as  religious  orders  never  had  before  in  any 
other  country. 

"Comparative  statistics  are  the  best  proof  of  this  fact.  Spain 
is  simply  filled  with  monasteries  and  religious  houses.  In  the 
year  i860  there  were  in  the  Diocese  of  Barcelona,  which  is  pro- 
portionately the  wealthiest  and  by  far  the  most  enHghtened, 
only  22  nuns,  and  on  the  other  hand  there  were  no  male  reli- 
gious at  all.  To-day  there  are  in  this  diocese  about  500  reli- 
gious houses,  of  which  95  per  cent  devote  themselves  to  educa- 
tion and  particularly  to  business  enterprises,  factories,  trades 
and  also  commerce.  Many  monks  have  the  superintendence 
over  penal  institutions,  asylums,  orphanages  and  hospitals, 
both  governmental  as  well  as  local  and  private  ones. 

"Besides  this,  there  exist  in  said  diocese,  which  has  not  much 
more  than  a  million  inhabitants,  six  thousand  associations, 
brotherhoods  and  establishments,  which  are  subject  to  the  man- 
agement of  the  religious  orders.  For  the  maintenance  of  these 
'Centros  Catolicos'  (Catholic  clubs),  religious  houses,  cathedral, 
diocesan  seminary,  280  parish  priests,  two  bishops,  the  canons 
and  the  rest  of  the  clergy,  constituting  some  2,000  persons,  the 
government  gives  every  year  8,000,000  duros,  that  is  $30,000,- 
000.  In  other  words,  each  individual  inhabitant  of  the  Diocese 
of  Barcelona  must  pay  annually  the  sum  of  $30  for  the  main- 
tenance of  bishops,  priests  and  the  male  and  female  members 
of  religious  orders. 

"And  now  we  will  give  a  statistical  sketch  of  the  whole  of 
Spain  in  this  regard.  According  to  the  official  figures  for  the 
year  1908,  there  were  religious  houses  as  follows :  In  the 
Province  of  Barcelona,  480;  in  Madrid,  229;  in  Lerida,  116; 
in  Tarragona,  152 ;  in  Gerona,  146;  in  Alava,  55 ;  in  Guipuzcoa, 
112;  in  Vizcaya,  124;  in  Navarre,  117;  in  Avila,  44;  in  Burgos, 
98 ;  in  Santander,  86 ;  in  Murcia,  89;  in  Albacete,  35 ;  in  Seville, 
169;  in  Huelva,  29;  in  Cadiz,  150;  in  Cordova,  105;  in  Gra- 
nada, 90 ;  in  Malaga,  86 ;  in  Jaen,  89 ;  in  Almeria,  32  ;  in  Badajos, 
73;  in  Caceres,  53;  in  Coruiia,  57;  in  Orense,  31 ;  in  Soria, 


68  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

28;  in  Segovia,  41;  in  Logrona,  66;  in  Zamora,  48;  in  Leon, 
54 ;  in  Salamanca,  67 ;  in  Valladolid,  96 ;  in  Palencia,  53 ;  in 
Toledo,  96;  in  Cuenca,  41 ;  in  Ciudad  Real,  49;  in  Guadalajara, 
43;  in  Saragossa,  112;  in  Teruel,  48;  in  Huesca,  63;  in  Cas- 
tellon,  68 ;  in  Valencia,  167 ;  in  Alicante,  92 ;  in  Pontevedra,  43 ; 
in  Lugo,  38;  in  Oviedo,  60;  in  the  Balearic  Islands,  164,  and  in 
the  Canaries,  32. 

"According  to  the  above  figures  Spain  has  four  thousand 
three  hundred  and  thirty  monasteries  of  religious  houses,  and 
near  them  exist  many  other  members  of  religious  orders  some- 
what secretly  under  various  pretences,  so  that  the  government 
and  the  people  may  be  deceived.  These  statistics  are  sufficient 
to  justify  the  steps  taken  by  Canalejas  in  the  matter  of  the  reli- 
gious orders." 

I  give  this  extract  so  that  the  readers  of  "America"  may 
recognize  the  source  whenever  they  see  them  printed  as  newly- 
made  investigations  in  Spain.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  they 
are  untrue,  and  that  they  are  given  with  a  prolixity  and  verisi- 
militude that  would  deceive  the  average  reader  who  has  not  the 
requisite  books  on  Spain  and  Spanish  affairs  with  which  to 
elicit  the  truth. 

As  a  sample  of  what  this  unknown  author  has  promulgated, 
let  us  take  the  one  upon  which  he  places  the  most  emphasis, 
the  Diocese  of  Barcelona.  I  have  by  me  the  statistics  of  the 
religious  houses  in  that  diocese  (1910)  and  an  account  of  the 
work  they  are  doing.  There  are  in  the  Barcelona  diocese  388 
religious  communities.  O'f  these  72  are  composed  of  men  and 
316  of  women.  There  are  865  male  members  of  the  religious 
communities  and  3,974  women.  There  are  besides,  1,194 
priests  at  present  in  charge  of  263  parishes.  The  population  of 
the  Diocese  of  Barcelona  is  1,054,540,  of  which  980,000  are 
reckoned  as  Catholics.  The  amount  of  the  population  there 
and  the  number  of  the  clergy  and  members  of  religious  com- 
munities are  about  the  same  as  for  the  Archdiocese  of  New 
York,  reckoning  only  the  Catholic  population. 

In  Barcelona  the  male  religious  orders  have  communities  de- 
voted as  follows :  To  contemplative  life,  2 ;  refuges,  protec- 
tories and  manual  training  schools  for  children,  5  ;  asylums  for 
old  people,  i  ;  charitable  associations,  17;  schools  and  colleges, 
47.  The  female  religious  orders  have  the  following  communi- 
ties :    Contemplative  life,  27 ;  houses  of  refuge,  protectories 


THE  LATEST  TACTICS  AS  TO  SPAIN  69 

and  training  schools  for  girls.  5 ;  hospitals,  asylums  and  homes 
for  old  people,  63;  schools  and  colleges,  221.  In  the  schools 
and  colleges  free  instruction  is  given  to  75,000  annually,  and 
among  them  are  included  kindergartens,  day  nurseries  and  re- 
ception rooms  for  the  children  of  the  poor,  while  their  parents 
are  at  work  during  the  day.  All  these  are  maintained  at  their 
own  expense  and  efforts,  are  entirely  exclusive  of  the  state 
public  schools,  hospitals  and  charitable  institutions — except  in 
regard  to  three  religious  orders,  who  perform  at  state  expense 
in  the  public  homes  and  hospitals  the  works  of  charity  and 
mercy  carried  on  by  those  institutions.  If  they  were  displaced 
that  expense  would  be  vastly  increased  by  the  employment  of 
lay  persons  in  the  service  of  the  state. 

But  this  anonymous  author  never  so  much  as  alludes  to 
these  facts.  Moreover,  he  includes  as  religious  organizations 
the  various  Catholic  clubs,  fraternal  societies,  Christian  Doc- 
trine confraternities  and  sodalities  which  exist  in  connection 
with  every  Catholic  church  the  world  over,  and  which  are 
always  associations  of  laymen  who  pay  their  own  meagre  ex- 
penses in  every  instance,  and  are  in  no  sense  religious  com- 
munities. In  no  single  instance  is  there  one  cent  contributed 
to  their  support  or  maintenance  by  the  government.  The  state- 
ment of  the  anonymous  author  in  this  regard  is  an  absolute 
invention.  It  is  likewise  untrue  that  any  religious  orders  in 
Barcelona  are  engaged  in  business  or  trade,  or  carry  on  fac- 
tories for  the  sale  of  their  products.  The  official  Hst  before 
me  shows  that  there  is  none  there  which  is  so  engaged. 

The  author  goes  even  further  in  the  realm  of  invention. 
He  says  the  Spanish  government  gives  every  year  some  8,000,- 
000  duros  (that  is  40,000,000  pesetas)  or  $30,000,000  (!)  for 
the  support  of  the  clergy,  religious  orders  and  lay  associations 
of  Barcelona.  In  the  first  place  a  duro  is  the  Spanish  word  for 
dollar,  and  is  equal  to  five  pesetas,  so  that  $30,000,000  is 
almost  more  than  four  times  the  amount  actually  given!  In 
the  second  place,  the  sum  of  8,000,000  duros  or  40,000,000 
pesetas,  is  the  sum  spent  by  the  Spanish  government  for  the 
entire  Church  in  all  Spain.  It  goes  to  pay  the  secular  salaries 
of  the  Minister  of  Worship  and  his  clerks,  the  upkeep  of 
church  buildings,  and  finally  the  salaries  and  stipends  of  the 
clergy  in  actual  charge  of  the  churches  and  parishes.  The  re- 
ligious orders  and  lay  associations  get  none  of  it,  except  the 


70  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

three  orders  actually  engaged  in  the  charitable  and  benevolent 
institutions  of  the  state,  who  receive  their  bare  maintenance  as 
individuals  in  lieu  of  a  salary. 

The  total  revenue  of  Spain  is  about  1,090,750,000  pesetas 
(or  $218,150,000),  and  the  Church — including  the  civil  officers, 
who  are  paid  out  of  the  appropriation — receives  a  little  over 
40,000,000  pesetas  (some  $8,000,000),  or  about  3  6/10  per  cent 
of  the  Spanish  revenue.  As  Spain  has  19,000,000  inhabitants, 
the  Province  of  Barcelona  (conterminous  with  the  diocese) 
pays  merely  1/19  of  the  total  sum  set  aside  for  the  Church,  and 
accordingly,  to  use  the  methods  of  the  anonymous  author,  each 
individual  inhabitant  of  Barcelona  has  to  pay  42  cents  annually 
(instead  of  $30)  for  the  support  of  the  Church.  If  the  mem- 
bers of  our  congregations  (of  any  creed)  in  America  could 
be  let  off  so  cheaply,  they  would  be  proud  to  acclaim  it. 

It  would  take  up  too  much  time  to  go  over  the  figures  given 
seriatim  and  show  their  falsity — the  number  of  religious 
houses  in  Spain  has  already  been  given  in  "America" — but  the 
rest  of  the  figures  in  this  latest  book  are  about  as  true  as  the 
figures  which  the  anonymous  author  gave  for  the  Barcelona 
diocese,  and  which  I  have  just  analysed.  The  whole  publica- 
tion is  intended  to  affect  public  opinion  in  regard  to  the  state 
of  affairs  in  Spain  by  the  time  the  Cortes  meets  again,  and  the 
religious  questions  are  once  more  to  the  front.  It  is,  however, 
well  to  be  able  to  recognize  these  figures  for  what  they  are, 
gross  falsehoods  and  not  true  statements  of  fact. 


THE  SITUATION  IN  PORTUGAL 

THAT  portion  of  the  Iberian  peninsula,  formerly  the 
Kingdom,  but  now  the  Republic,  of  Portugal,  has  been 
notoriously  before  the  public  in  several  instances  within 
the  past  few  years.  It  was  only  a  few  years  ago  that  the  king 
and  crown  prince  were  assassinated  in  the  public  streets  of 
Lisbon,  and  only  a  few  months  have  passed  since  the  new 
republic  was  proclaimed  amid  a  general  attack  upon  the  re- 
ligious orders  and  clergy,  while  the  king  and  royal  family  were 
driven  from  the  land.  We  have  had  many  newspaper  de- 
spatches concerning  these  events,  but  very  little  real  informa- 
tion as  to  the  land  itself,  its  people  and  their  church  and  its 
organization.  We  know  that  Portugal  was  once  a  world 
power  and  vied  with  Spain  and  England  as  the  mistress  of  the 
seas.  Its  navigators  explored  Africa  and  Asia,  and  explored 
and  settled  a  large  part  of  South  America.  One  of  its  greatest 
colonies  became  first  the  Empire  and  afterwards  the  Republic 
of  Brazil.  Its  land  has  furnished  poets,  warriors,  navigators 
and  colonizers,  but  alas,  few  statesmen  of  the  calibre  which 
the  world  reckons  as  great. 

The  Portuguese  are,  of  course,  regarded  as  a  Latin  race, 
and  the  Roman  domination,  from  the  time  of  the  conquest  of 
the  peninsula  which  makes  up  Spain  and  Portugal,  has  left  its 
mark  upon  language,  people  and  institutions,  although  the  re- 
mains of  Roman  art,  architecture  and  civilization  are  not  so 
plentifully  found  as  in  Spain. 

Anciently,  Portugal,  together  with  a  portion  of  what  is  mod- 
ern Spain,  was  known  as  the  Roman  province  of  Lusitania. 
The  Latin  language  is  the  base,  if  not  altogether  the  sole  ele- 
ment, of  the  Portuguese  language,  which  in  its  orthography 
seems  closer  to  Latin  than  the  Spanish,  but  further  from  it  in 
pronunciation  and  grammatical  structure.  The  Portuguese 
are  not  a  people  of  diverse  race  origin,  as  are  the  Spaniards, 
who  spring  from  a  mixture  of  Iberian,  Roman,  Gothic  and 
Visigothic  elements.    They  seem  to  be  chiefly  of  Iberian  stock, 

71 


72  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

on  which  the  Vandals  and  Goths  made  Httle  impression,  with 
only  a  modern  and  slight  intermixture  of  other  races,  chiefly 
Moorish  and  African. 

The  Portuguese  are  literally  the  longest-headed  people  in 
Europe  ("Cranial  Index"  75,  yj),  and  they  are  below  the  aver- 
age height.  Blond-haired  Portuguese  are  practically  unknown, 
while  ordinary  dark  or  black  hair  is  found  among  about  a 
fifth  of  the  population ;  very  jet-black  hair  is  the  rule.  This 
at  once  differentiates  them  from  their  neighbors,  the  Spanish ; 
and  their  language  does  so  even  more.  To  an  English-speak- 
ing person  the  Portuguese  language  seems  like  sloppy  Spanish 
pronounced  in  a  French  fashion.  It  is  so  much  like  Spanish 
as  to  be  deceptive,  and  differs  from  it  widely  just  when  one 
thinks  they  ought  to  be  alike.  The  Portuguese  language  shows 
signs,  even  more  than  the  French,  of  the  influence  of  that 
strange  Gaelic  habit  of  ellipsis,  or  the  dropping  of  a  letter  in  the 
middle  of  a  word. 

Of  course,  the  very  name,  Portugal,  indicates  that  it  was  a 
country  of  the  Gaels,  for  the  name  is  derived  from  the  ancient 
Latin  name  for  the  present  city  and  province  of  Oporto,  which 
was  in  Latin  Partus  Cale,  or  Partus  Gale,  that  is,  the  Port 
of  the  Gaels.  From  this  city  the  name  spread  to  the  whole 
country,  and  it  was  accordingly  called  Portugal.  Notwith- 
standing the  original  inhabitants  and  their  descendants  talked 
a  Latin  jargon  acquired  from  their  Roman  conquerors,  which 
finally  developed  into  the  present  Portuguese  language,  they 
could  not  forbear  the  Gaelic  habit  of  ellipsis.  The  French,  or 
Gauls  (who  were  really  Gaels),  did  this,  as  in  the  Latin  words, 
pater,  mater,  from  which  they  made  pcre  and  mere.  So  the 
Portuguese,  for  example,  when  they  used  the  Latin  generalis 
(general),  plural  generates,  first  dropped  the  "n"  and  said 
geral,  and  in  the  plural  they  also  dropped  the  "1"  and  said 
geraes,  a  regular  nasal  telescopic  way  of  pronouncing  a  word. 
Thus  the  genius  of  the  Portuguese  language  has  differentiated 
it  more  and  more  from  the  Spanish,  and,  while  the  two  are 
derived  from  the  same  colonial  Latin,  the  result  has  been 
curiously  different,  yet  sufficiently  alike  to  be  perplexing  to 
the  student. 

Spain  and  Portugal  were  not  originally  separated,  any  more 
than  they  are  geographically  separated  to-day.  Portugal,  after 
Roman  times,  and  when  the  Gaelic  and  Gothic  tribes  descended 


THE  SITUATION  IN  PORTUGAL  73 

to  dismember  the  great  empire,  came  under  the  rule  of  the 
kings  of  GaHcia  (which  is  now  northwestern  Spain) — another 
instance  of  where  the  name  Gael  is  still  imbedded  in  a  purely 
national  name.  It  was  also  conquered  by  the  Moors,  and  re- 
mained under  Mohammedan  rule  for  two  hundred  years.  Ber- 
mudez.  King  of  Galicia,  reconquered  it  in  997,  and  St.  Ferdi- 
nand, King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  nearly  completed  the  con- 
quest and  expelled  the  Moors  from  all  the  northern  part  of 
the  country.  In  1109,  the  country  freed  itself  from  the  rule 
of  the  Galicians,  and  later  threw  off  all  allegiance  to  Castile. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  Portuguese  independence  as  a  sepa- 
rate kingdom.  The  creators  of  the  kingdom's  greatness  were 
King  Denis  (1279-1325)  and  his  successor,  Alfonso  IV  (1325- 

1357)- 
In  1383,  the  dynasty  died  out,  and  John  I  was  elected  king 

(1383-1433).  He  married  Philippa,  daughter  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  in  England,  and  thus  commenced  the  close  relations  of 
Portugal  with  England.  He  was  the  first  foreign  monarch  to 
receive  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  and  with  him  the  heroic  age 
of  Portuguese  history  began.  He  forever  put  an  end  to  Span- 
ish sovereignty,  expelled  the  last  of  the  Moors,  and  sent  out 
navigator  after  navigator  to  explore  the  world.  Madeira  was 
occupied  in  1420,  and  Guiana  the  following  year.  Bartholo- 
mew Diaz  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  i486,  and  in 
1498  Vasco  da  Gama  discovered  the  sea  route  to  India.  Bra- 
zil was  discovered  and  settled  in  1500  by  Pedro  Alvares  Ca- 
bral.  Magellan  (in  Portuguese,  Magalhaes)  went  to  Brazil 
in  1 5 19,  rounded  Cape  Horn  in  1520,  discovered  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  in  1 52 1,  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1522, 
and  before  the  end  of  that  year  was  back  again  in  Portugal, 
having  successfully  completed  the  first  voyage  around  the 
world.  Not  only  was  Brazil  colonized,  but  conquests  and  colo- 
nies followed  in  India,  China,  Africa  and  Mozambique. 

In  1580,  however,  this  kingly  line  in  turn  became  extinct 
and  Portugal  was  annexed  to  Spain.  For  sixty  years  the  Por- 
tuguese endured  the  harsh  rule  of  Philip  II  and  his  successors, 
but  in  1640  they  revolted.  The  nobles  and  clergy  succeeded  in 
freeing  the  country  from  Spanish  rule  and  in  placing  the  Por- 
tuguese Duke  of  Braganza  on  the  throne  under  the  name  of 
John  IV.  But,  during  the  Spanish  rule  and  the  succeeding 
wars,  Portugal  had  declined  in  power  and  wealth.    Her  mari- 


74  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

time  trade  had  vanished,  many  of  her  Indian  provinces  were 
taken  by  the  Dutch,  and  the  country,  loaded  with  debt,  had 
practically  become  a  commercial  dependency  of  England. 
When  its  formal  independence  was  acknowledged  in  1668  by 
treaty  with  Spain,  only  the  vestiges  of  its  former  glory  re- 
mained. In  1703,  the  Methuen  treaty  was  negotiated  with 
England,  by  which  the  latter  secured  and  ever  since  has  kept 
the  trade  supremacy  of  Portugal.  In  1750,  Joseph,  the  grand- 
son of  John  IV,  ascended  the  Portuguese  throne.  It  was 
during  his  reign  (1750-1777)  that  the  Marquis  de  Pombal 
took  entire  charge  of  the  reins  of  government.  He  carried  on 
a  relentless  war  against  the  old  nobility  and  the  clergy,  and  as 
a  result  of  his  efforts,  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  in  1759,  and 
for  many  years  thereafter  all  the  property  of  religious  orders 
was  confiscated  and  secularized.  The  republican  revolutionists 
of  to-day  are  merely  repeating  what  Pombal  did  over  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  ago. 

During  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the  French  invaded  Portugal, 
and  were  about  to  partition  the  country  with  Spain,  much  after 
the  manner  of  Poland.  John  VI,  King  of  Portugal,  in  order 
to  escape  the  French  invaders,  went  to  Brazil  and  set  up  his 
throne  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  in  1807.  During  the  Peninsular 
Wars,  the  English  and  Portuguese  troops  under  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  freed  Portugal  from  the  French  invaders.  The 
transfer  of  the  seat  of  government  from  Portugal  to  Brazil 
was  a  source  of  humiHation  to  the  Portuguese,  and,  although 
King  John  might  have  returned  to  Portugal  after  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  in  1814,  when  Napoleon's  power  was  broken,  he 
stayed  in  Brazil  until  1821,  when  Napoleon  died  in  St.  Helena. 
When  he  returned  to  Portugal  it  was  to  find  a  constitution  pro- 
claimed. He  left  his  son,  Dom  Pedro,  as  regent  in  Brazil,  but 
in  1822  Brazil  declared  its  independence  and  made  Dom  Pedro 
its  first  emperor. 

From  that  time  to  this  the  fortunes  of  Portugal  have  varied, 
with  but  little  improvement  in  the  prospects  of  the  country. 
In  188 1,  the  so-called  Republican  party  commenced  its  active 
propaganda,  determined  to  oust  the  royal  family  and  overturn 
most  of  the  existing  institutions.  The  country  became  bank- 
rupt in  1892,  and  in  1901  its  revenues  were  practically  seques- 
tered to  pay  the  foreign  debts,  and  the  management  of  the 
revenue  was  put  in  the  hands  of  a  commission,  including  repre- 


THE  SITUATION  IN  PORTUGAL  75 

sentatives  of  England,  Germany  and  France.  In  other  words, 
Portugal  for  the  past  two  hundred  years  has  been  a  pawn  on 
the  chessboard  of  her  creditors,  without  revenues,  without 
energy  and  without  any  definite  hope.  Nearly  all  her  defi- 
ciences  may  be  ascribed  to  lack  of  means  and  the  lack  of  man- 
hood arising  from  financial  slavery. 

The  Church  in  Portugal  has  been  during  the  last  two  cen- 
turies in  a  precarious  condition.  One  hears  much  of  the  domi- 
nation of  the  priesthood,  but  the  fact  is  that  the  Church,  viewed 
merely  as  organism  of  the  body  politic,  is  completely  domi- 
nated by  the  State.  This  does  not  refer  to  the  present  provi- 
sional government,  but  to  the  old  monarchical  regime.  For  in- 
stance, the  late  Constitution  (Chap.  2,  Art.  75)  empowers  the 
king  and  his  ministers  "to  appoint  bishops  and  bestow  ecclesi- 
astical benefices,"  and  this  power  was  always  exercised  as  the 
ministry  saw  fit.  Whatever  deficiences  there  may  be  among 
the  hierarchy  or  higher  clergy  who  have  the  direction  of  eccle- 
siastical affairs  and  who  rule  the  parochial  clergy,  they  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  endeavor  to  make  the  Portuguese  Church  little 
more  than  a  bureau  of  the  government.  Nor  would  the  gov- 
ernment brook  any  rival.  Religious  teaching  orders  were  ex- 
pelled even  under  the  late  government ;  the  Jesuits  were  first 
expelled  in  1759,  and  all  the  remaining  orders  banished  in 
1834.  Hampering  restrictions  were  placed  on  ecclesiastical 
seminaries  and  vocations  to  the  priesthood.  During  the  past 
thirty  years  some  few  religious  orders  were  allowed  to  return 
in  order  to  meet  the  dearth  of  schools,  but  even  they  have 
usually  been  expelled  whenever  the  authorities  thought  fit  to 
sign  a  decree. 

The  clergy  have  always  been  excluded,  under  special  laws, 
from  having  anything  to  do  with  secondary  or  higher  educa- 
tion in  any  of  the  government  institutions.  Their  religious 
instruction  in  the  primary  schools  where  catechism,  Christian 
doctrine,  and  church  history  is  provided  by  law  and  is  in 
theory  taught,  has  been  hampered  by  all  sorts  of  vexatious 
decrees.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  Jansenism  made 
great  headway  among  the  Portuguese  and  induced  an  indiffer- 
ence to  the  frequent  reception  of  the  sacraments.  Within  the 
past  seventy  years  Freemasonry  of  the  political  continental 
kind  has  been  most  powerful  in  Portugal,  nearly  every  official 
of  State  or  officer  of  the  army  and  navy  belonging  to  it.    Be- 


^^  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

ing  a  secret  society,  political  propaganda  went  almost  unno- 
ticed. All  the  members  of  the  present  provisional  government 
are  said  to  be  Masons  of  the  virulent  European  brand  and 
very  anti-Catholic. 

The  population  of  Portugal  was,  in  1900,  5,016,167,  or  about 
that  of  the  State  of  Ohio.  In  geographical  area  it  is  slightly 
larger  than  Ohio.  The  people  of  Portugal  do  not  live  in  cities, 
but  are  rural  and  agricultural  exclusively ;  only  a  little  less 
than  one-third  (32.4  per  cent)  of  the  population  being  dwell- 
ers in  cities  and  towns.  There  are  no  large  cities  in  the  king- 
dom. Lisbon,  the  capital,  had  in  1900  only  356,000  inhabi- 
tants; Oporto,  167,950;  Braga,  24,200;  Setubal,  22,074,  and 
Coimbra,  18,150,  Hence,  the  whole  population  are  practically 
penniless  country  farmers  and  farm  hands,  with  all  the  disad- 
vantages and  backwardness  which  that  fact  implies.  The  ex- 
ternal and  internal  debt  of  Portugal  is  approximately  about 
$140  for  each  man,  woman  and  child  in  the  kingdom,  and  taxa- 
tion is  proportionately  heavy. 

For  this  population  the  number  of  parishes  in  the  whole  of 
Portugal  is  3,736,  and  the  number  of  priests  about  6,840.  The 
Church  in  Portugal  is  constituted  as  follows:  Patriarchate 
of  Lisbon,  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  with  two  suflfragan 
bishops,  Guarda  and  Portalegre;  Archbishopric  of  Evora,  in 
the  south,  with  two  sufifragan  bishops,  Beja  and  Faro;  Arch- 
bishopric of  Braga,  in  the  north,  with  five  suffragan  bishops, 
Braganza,  Coimbra,  Lamego,  Porto  and  Vizeu,  thus  making 
twelve  dioceses  for  the  whole  of  Portugal.  In  addition  to  them 
there  is  the  Archbishop  of  Goa  in  India,  with  four  suffragan 
bishops  of  Cochin,  Damao,  Macao  and  Meliapur  in  the  Portu- 
guese East  Indies ;  and  also  the  bishops  of  Angola,  Augra  and 
San  Thome  in  Africa,  Funchal  in  Madeira,  Santiago  in  Cape 
Verde,  which  are  subject  to  Lisbon.  There  were  very  few 
religious  orders  in  Portugal,  only  teaching  and  charitable  ones 
being  allowed  after  1870. 

Education,  of  course,  is  backward.  The  rural  population  do 
not  see  its  necessity ;  they  are  too  poor  to  provide  schools,  and 
the  government  is  bankrupt.  The  latest  Constitution  was 
adopted  in  1842  and  it  contains  (Art.  145,  Sec.  30)  the  declara- 
tion :  "Primary  instruction  shall  be  free  to  all  citizens."  No 
government  so  far  has  ever  carried  this  out,  or  been  able  to 
furnish  the  means  whereby  such  education  should  be  freely 


THE  SITUATION  IN  PORTUGAL  'jj 

tendered  to  all  citizens.  A  law  was  passed  thirty  years  ago 
making  primary  education  compulsory,  but  the  law  could  not 
be  enforced  because  the  government  could  not  provide  the 
schools.  It  is  said  that  in  1900  the  illiteracy  of  the  Portu- 
guese ran  as  high  as  70  per  cent,  but  in  the  cities  they  are 
fairly  well  versed  in  elementary  knowledge,  chiefly  owing  to 
the  excellent  church  schools.  There  were  then  some  4,500 
public  and  some  1,200  private  primary  schools,  with  an  attend- 
ance of  240,000  pupils,  besides  a  number  of  special  primary 
schools  for  adults,  with  some  7,000  pupils.  Secondary  schools 
are  maintained  in  the  chief  towns  and  had  an  attendance  of 
5,860  pupils  in  1904.  Besides  law,  professional  and  technical 
schools,  there  is  the  University  of  Coimbra,  with  an  attendance 
in  1904  of  1,056  students.  Every  attempt  to  enter  as  students 
of  theology  is  handicapped  by  all  imaginable  obstacles ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  study  and  graduation  in  law  is  all  the 
rage.  Portugal  suffers  from  an  over-abundance  of  penniless 
advocates  and  clientless  lawyers. 

As  to  the  government  of  Portugal,  it  is  hard  to  say  just 
what  its  form  now  is.    Of  course,  up  to  last  October  it  was 
a  monarchy  under  a  liberal  Constitution,  at  least  on  paper, 
modelled  much  after  English  institutions.    It  would  be  useless 
to  describe  that  now,  since  it  is  practically  abrogated.    It,  how- 
ever, provided  that  every  man  of  21  years  of  age,  with  an  an- 
nual income  of  $100,   should  be  entitled  to  vote    (Title  IV, 
Chapter  5,   Article  5),   that  all  religions  may  be  permitted 
(Title  I,  Art.  6),  and  that  no  one  shall  be  prosecuted  because 
of  his  religion,  provided  he  respects  the  religion  of  the  State 
and  does  not  offend  pubHc  morals  (Title  VIII,  Article  145). 
Just  what  the   future  constitution  or   future  government  of 
Portugal  will  be  no  one  can  tell.     They  call  it  a  republic ;  but 
so  far  a  committee  of  seven  men  comprise  the  whole  govern- 
ment.   No  one  elected  or  appointed  them;  they  have  no  man- 
date from  the  people  that  they  should  take  and  hold  office,  nor 
have  they  any  Constitution,  rules  or  form  of  government  to 
define  their  powers  and  to  limit  their  acts.    No  minister  of  the 
fallen  government  has  ever  dared  to  do   things  which  they 
have   done   in   the   name   of    liberty   and    democracy.      Even 
Franco,  who  suspended  a  section  of  the  Constitution  tempo- 
rarily, acted  uprightly  for  the  most  part,  and  respected  prop- 
erty and  individual  rights. 


78  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

The  very  origin  of  their  assumption  of  self-conferred  power 
behes  any  grounded  spontaneous  outburst  on  the  part  of  the 
people  for  their  rule.  A  rebellious  garrison,  traitorous  guards 
and  a  seditious  navy  enabled  them  to  effect  the  revolution  and 
climb  into  power.  The  heroes  of  this  revolution,  who  are 
hailed  as  martyrs,  are  two  men  who  did  but  little  to  effect  it, 
one  of  whom  died  by  the  hand  of  a  demented  patient  in  his 
own  hospital,  and  the  other  committed  suicide  on  his  ship 
because  he  thought  the  uprising  was  a  failure.  Yet  Dr.  Miguel 
Bombarda  and  Vice-Admiral  Candido  Dos  Reis  received  a 
magnificent  public  funeral  through  the  streets  of  Lisbon, 
as  though  they  had  fallen  bravely  fighting  at  the  head  of  vic- 
torious troops.  All  the  Masonic  lodges  were  represented  offi- 
cially, and  the  long  procession  was  filled  with  banners  and  pen- 
nants bearing  Masonic  emblems,  thus  making  it  a  personal  as 
well  as  an  official  manifestation. 

The  moment  that  the  seven  men  formed  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment of  the  so-called  Republic  of  Portugal  they  commenced 
war  on  the  Church.  Here  are  their  names,  so  that  their  his- 
tory may  be  scanned:  Teofilo  Braga,  president;  Alfonso 
Costa,  minister  of  justice;  Bernardino  Machado,  minister  of 
foreign  affairs;  Antonio  d Almeida,  minister  of  the  interior; 
Luiz  Barreto,  minister  of  war ;  Amaro  Acevedo  Gomes,  min- 
ister of  marine ;  and  Basilio  Peyes,  minister  of  commerce  and 
agriculture  (faaenda).  We  shall  see  how  large  their  names 
loom  in  the  coming  history  of  Portugal. 

Without  any  Constitution,  law,  rules  of  procedure,  court, 
jury,  accusation  or  trial,  these  seven  men  constituted  them- 
selves the  most  despotic  government  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
They  drove  monks  from  their  cloisters,  nuns  from  their  con- 
vents, and  the  regular  clergy  from  their  homes.  They  arrested 
every  member  of  a  religious  order  without  warrant  and  with- 
out charges,  marched  them  as  the  vilest  criminals  through  the 
streets,  threw  them  into  the  foulest  prisons,  where  they  ex- 
isted without  the  ordinary  conveniences  of  life.  When  the 
jails  showed  signs  of  being  full,  without  further  trial,  or  with- 
out being  charged  with  any  disorder  or  crime  against  the  coun- 
try or  its  people,  these  religious  were  summarily  banished  from 
the  country. 

The  vilest  stories  were  told  about  the  nuns  and  sisters ;  they 
were  subjected  to  almost  every  form  of  insult ;  while  the  wild- 


THE  SITUATION  IN  PORTUGAL  79 

est  and  most  improbable  stories  of  underground  passages  and 
subterranean  flights  were  spread  broadcast  about  the  regular 
clergy,  who  were  expelled  from  their  religious  houses.  All 
the  insults,  cries  and  contempt  were  for  the  irmas,  or  sisters, 
and  the  frades,  or  brothers,  as  the  members  of  the  religious 
orders  were  called  in  Portuguese.  Not  even  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  were  spared.  A  correspondent  calls  attention  to  the 
way  in  which  two  different  groups  of  prisoners  were  treated 
by  the  revolutionists.  One  group  of  men  came  along  as  pris- 
oners conducted  in  a  polite  and  suave  manner  by  the  soldiers. 
They  were  not  unfrocked  frades,  but  they  were  three  private 
soldiers  in  uniform,  who  had  broken  down  the  door  of  the 
church  of  San  Salvador  and  plundered  everything  valuable 
there  which  they  could  lay  their  hands  upon.  Shortly  after- 
wards a  few  nuns  were  hustled  along,  with  insults,  cries  and 
whistling.  Among  them  were  three  Spanish  women,  one  a 
widow,  79  years  of  age,  and  her  two  daughters,  all  of  them 
discalced  Carmelite  nuns,  who  were  thrust  across  the  border 
into  Spain  without  funds  or  resources. 

For  three  days  no  order  whatever  was  observed  by  the  revo- 
lutionists in  Lisbon.  Churches  were  dismantled  or  closed  and 
all  services  ceased.  Yet  there  was  one  exception.  The  Irish 
Dominican  Church,  which  has  stood  for  150  years  in  Lisbon, 
was  wide  open  and  services  went  on  uninterruptedly.  The 
British  flag  was  hoisted  over  it  and  the  Union  Jack  was  draped 
over  the  doorways,  while  each  Dominican  monk  wore  a  tiny 
Union  Jack  as  a  buttonhole  ornament.  The  so-called  republic 
did  not  dare  arrest  or  expel  these  religious,  nor  make  any 
attack  upon  their  church  or  convent.  So  they  made  them  the 
general  exception  to  the  expulsion  of  religious,  and  that,  too, 
without  any  representation,  diplomatic  or  otherwise,  from  Eng- 
land. But  the  brave  government  of  seven  knew  that  if  they 
touched  an  Irish  Dominican  friar,  save  after  charges  duly  pre- 
ferred, and  a  formal  trial  and  conviction  for  violation  of  some 
law  which  they  had  infringed,  the  new  government  would  hear 
in  no  uncertain  manner  from  Great  Britain. 

The  new  government  of  seven,  before  there  is  a  Constitution 
or  legislature  in  existence,  has  begun  to  promulgate  decrees 
having  all  the  effect  of  law,  and  put  into  practice  the  following 
as  far  as  possible:  Separation  of  Church  and  State,  which 
also  spells  confiscation  of  church  property;  a  law  of  divorce 


8o  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

which  goes  so  far  as  to  permit  divorce  by  consent ;  lay  neutral 
schools,  in  which  anti-Catholic  doctrines  are  taught  while  the 
church  or  religious  teaching  is  excluded,  and  a  law  permitting, 
if  not  almost  commanding,  parish  priests  to  marry,  notwith- 
standing their  vows  or  the  rules  of  the  Church.  At  present 
they  are  considering  laws  prohibiting  religious  rites  for  any 
of  the  state,  army  or  navy,  so  that  the  government  may  be 
kept  free  from  any  alleged  clerical  influence,  and  also  a  law 
permitting  the  equality  of  inheritance  and  legal  rights  between 
legitimate  and  illegitimate  children. 

Portugal  has  had  a  glorious  and  heroic  past,  but  the  last 
two  centuries  have  been  centuries  of  impotence  and  dishonor. 
Its  magnificent  churches,  hospitals,  monastery  buildings  and 
abbeys  testify  to  the  time  when  the  Catholic  faith  was  a  living 
and  quickening  reality  there.  But,  as  the  State  gradually  fet- 
tered the  Church,  tying  it  limb  by  limb,  the  State  grew  om- 
nipotent and  paralyzed  all  independent  action  on  the  part  of 
the  Church.  Only  so  long  ago  as  last  August  the  Archbishop 
of  Braga  suspended  a  religious  paper,  *'A  Voz  de  Sao  Fran- 
cisco," for  some  infraction  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  and  was 
prosecuted  by  the  government  for  not  having  obtained  permis- 
sion from  it  to  do  so.  The  present  Bishop  of  Beja,  Dr.  Sebas- 
tian Leite  de  Vasconcellos,  was  driven  from  his  see  by  the 
revolutionists  and  fled  to  Spain  for  safety;  he  was  accused 
and  condemned  by  the  revolutionary  government  for  being 
absent  from  his  see  without  leave.  These  instances  show  how 
tight  a  rein  the  Portuguese  government  held  over  the  Church, 
and  how  little  initiative  or  power  was  left  to  the  clergy  to  do 
their  work  as  in  other  countries.  Add  to  this  the  poverty  of 
the  people,  the  heavy  debts  and  incapacity  of  the  government, 
and  we  have  the  elements  which  make  for  backwardness  and 
immobility  of  a  race  which  is  largely  scattered  among  its 
country  districts.  But  the  faults,  shortcomings  and  defects  in 
Portugal  are  really  the  result  of  State  supremacy,  and  it  re- 
mains to  be  seen  how  much  good  can  come  out  of  the  new 
order  of  things  which  calls  itself  a  republic,  without  being  one 
even  in  form. 


THE  VARIOUS  NATIONALITIES  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  AND  THEIR  RITES 


IMMIGRATION  TO  THE 
UNITED  STATES 

I. — The  Earlier  Immigration 

THE  early  immigration  to  the  United  States,  considered 
in  the  large,  was  almost  wholly  from  English-speaking 
countries.  The  vast  Irish  immigration  between  1830 
and  i860  consisted  of  English-speaking  people,  who  were  thus 
readily  appreciative  of  the  conditions  which  they  found  in  the 
United  States  and  easily  capable  of  making  themselves  and 
their  race  understood  in  this  great  EngHsh-speaking  republic. 
This  republic  was  founded  upon  English  laws  and  traditions, 
but  by  a  commingled  stream  of  English,  Scotch  and  Irish  colo- 
nists, who  found  their  common  language  a  unifying  element. 
In  fact,  the  Irish  immigration  lent  a  steadying  force  to  the 
ideas  expressed  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  the 
constitution  and  establishment  of  these  United  States — the 
ideas  of  political  equality  and  opportunity  and  of  separation 
from  Great  Britain  and  her  monarchical  institutions.  Never- 
theless, the  English  language,  which  the  United  States  had 
inherited,  as  well  as  many  of  its  legal  forms  and  expressions, 
was  charged  with  prejudice  towards  and  misunderstanding  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  Consequently,  the  Irish  immigrants  were 
misunderstood  and  depreciated  in  one  respect.  They  were 
almost  to  a  man  staunch  adherents  of  the  Catholic  faith  and 
consequently  did  not  command  sympathy  or  respect,  but  rather 
excited  contempt  and  distrust  among  the  citizens  of  the  grow- 
ing republic.  Nevertheless,  in  the  course  of  several  decades 
they  managed  to  win  both  respect  and  sympathy,  as  well  as  to 
live  down  a  bitter  persecution  founded  chiefly  on  hatred  to 
their  form  of  religion,  but  also  on  the  fact  that  they  were  alien 
born  and  presumed  to  claim  the  advantages  and  privileges  of 
American  citizens. 

To  them  succeeded  the  German  immigration  of  1848  and 
after.     This  began  during  the  "Sturm  und  Drang"  period  of 

83 


84  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

German  history,  when  the  smaller  German  thrones  were  over- 
turned and  sceptres  smashed  in  the  revolutionary  excitement 
of  the  times.  Small  German  principalities  disappeared,  feudal 
systems  were  abolished,  and  larger  German  kingdoms  arose 
to  succeed  them.  During  this  formative  period  thousands  and 
thousands  of  Germans  sought  refuge  in  the  United  States. 
Between  them  and  the  American  of  those  days  stood  the  bar- 
rier of  language  and  strange  customs.  This  made  them  mis- 
understood, and,  being  poor  and  forlorn,  likewise  despised 
amid  the  general  contempt  for  the  poor  and  homeless  from 
other  lands.  As  the  Germans  were  largely  Catholic,  the  gen- 
eral hatred  and  contempt  for  the  Catholic  Irish  became  their 
portion  also.  But  the  German  persevered,  accumulated  prop- 
erty by  his  thrift  and  economy,  learned  EngUsh  and  the  cus- 
toms and  ideas  of  his  new  fatherland,  and  in  every  way  showed 
his  worth.  His  habits  of  industry,  frugality  and  saving  were 
valuable  assets  to  our  national  body.  The  time  came  when 
the  German  was  no  longer  looked  upon  as  of  a  strange  race ; 
his  culture  and  history  were  appreciated,  and  he  was  welcomed 
as  a  real  addition  to  our  national  forces.  Both  the  German 
and  the  Irishman  distinguished  themselves  in  the  Civil  War 
between  the  States,  North  and  South,  and  henceforth  all 
America  knew  that  patriotism  and  devotion  to  the  new  father- 
land was  a  virtue  which  each  possessed  in  as  eminent  a  de- 
gree as  the  native  elder  American,  whilst  in  courage  and  self- 
denial  they  might  outdo  him. 

Meanwhile  the  nations  heard  the  call  of  opportunity  in  the 
new  world  and  promptly  responded.  At  first  the  inhabitants 
of  Scandinavia — the  Norwegians,  Danes  and  Swedes — came 
hither,  and  we  made  them  welcome,  for  they  were  only  one 
remove  from  the  German  and  did  not  have  the  obstacle  of  the 
Catholic  faith  as  a  stumbling-block.  The  French,  Swiss  and 
Belgians  came,  too,  but  in  limited  numbers,  and  then  the  heter- 
ogeneous inhabitants  of  the  Austrian  monarchy  began  to  ar- 
rive. By  that  time  we  had  grown  in  a  measure  more  tolerant 
of  those  who  were  born  across  the  seas.  We  welcomed  them 
as  fleeing  from  adverse  conditions  at  home  and  as  material  to 
make  up  the  fibre  of  our  American  civilization.  Perhaps  the 
fact  was  that  we  of  the  elder  stock  of  Americans  had  become 
so  far  educated  that  we  now  knew  who  these  people  were,  as 
well  as  something  of  their  languages,  culture  and  history. 


IMMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES       85 

After  the  Civil  War  between  the  North  and  South  our  coun- 
try began  to  expand  rapidly,  to  grow  great  and  to  exploit 
every  form  of  industry  and  trade  known  to  man  and  to  make 
use  of  the  thousands  of  new  inventions  which  the  eager  minds 
of  this  and  other  countries  had  devised.  The  original  Eng- 
lish-speaking American  stock  went  further  afield  and  began  to 
settle  and  occupy  the  great  West  which  lay  between  the  Middle 
States  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  To  undertake  the  necessary 
hard  work  and  pioneer  labor,  fresh  importations  and  immigra- 
tion from  Europe  were  demanded.  The  immigration  from  the 
English-speaking  races  and  from  Teutonic  lands  was  beginning 
to  slacken  and  in  some  cases  had  almost  ceased.  The  immi- 
grants of  those  races  already  here  had  entered  upon  the  second 
stage,  that  of  property  owners  and  the  employers  of  labor 
themselves,  whilst  the  demand  for  labor  in  America — labor 
of  the  cheapest  and  commonest  sort,  requiring  brawn,  muscle 
and  endurance — was  ever  increasing.  New  projects  for  the 
development  of  the  United  States  and  its  varied  industries 
were  constantly  evolved  and  strong  and  stout  men  were  re- 
quired to  realize  them.  Then  it  was  that  the  Eastern  and 
Southern  parts  of  Europe  awoke  to  the  fact  that  America 
needed  strong  muscles  and  willing  arms. 

In  the  '8o's  the  movement  towards  America  set  in  strongly 
from  Austria,  with  its  varied  races,  and  from  Italy,  with  its 
industrious  and  facile  workmen.  It  has  been  a  steadily  in- 
creasing stream  ever  since,  the  numbers  year  by  year  mounting 
higher  and  higher.  To  it  have  been  added  new  races,  those  of 
Turkey  and  the  Balkans  and  of  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt.  Fur- 
ther Asia  (the  extreme  Orient  of  China,  Japan,  Siam  and 
allied  races)  has  contributed  but  little,  owing  to  our  exclusion 
laws.  Yet  even  the  aggregate  of  their  numbers  throughout 
the  United  States  is  large.  Russia,  the  great  consolidated  em- 
pire of  Eastern  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  has  sent  us  her 
immigrants,  consisting  mostly  of  non-Russian  peoples,  Jews, 
Poles,  Lithuanians,  Finns  and  other  subject  peoples.  Her 
own  race,  the  Russians  of  Slavic  blood,  she  encourages  to 
emigrate  to  Siberia,  which  she  is  settling  with  a  rapidity  greater 
than  we  displayed  in  our  Western  States. 

Thus,  the  older  class  of  immigration  has  gradually  passed 
away.  The  peoples  from  the  east  and  south  of  Europe  and 
from  Asia  and  Africa  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  consti- 


86  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

tute  the  majority  of  our  immigrants.  Owing  to  improved  con- 
ditions at  home,  in  Germany  and  Ireland,  as  well  as  the  Scan- 
dinavian countries,  immigrations  from  those  localities  have 
practically  ceased,  when  viewed  alongside  the  figures  of  immi- 
gration from  other  places.  For  example,  the  immigration  into 
the  United  States  for  the  preceding  year  was  about  1,014,500, 
while  only  86,130  English,  81,714  Germans,  50,488  Irish,  56,910 
Scandinavians,  and  33,105  Scotch,  making  a  total  of  303,350 
in  all,  came  in.  Thus,  less  than  one-third  of  the  total  immi- 
gration is  composed  of  the  races  constituting  the  earlier  im- 
migration. This,  in  the  opinion  of  those  who  have  carefully 
studied  the  subject,  is  not  likely  to  change ;  except  that  the  pro- 
portion of  the  older  form  of  immigration  may  sink  to  one- 
fourth  of  the  total,  or  perhaps  lower. 

This  immigration  of  races  with  whom  we,  considered  as  a 
people  at  large,  are  not  acquainted,  whose  language,  history 
and  customs  we  know  but  in  the  slightest,  is  the  problem  which 
we  have  to  face  earnestly  and  seriously.  Often  one  talks  of 
the  "ignorant"  immigrant  and  despises  him  accordingly ;  but 
it  is  really  we  who  are  ignorant,  for  we  do  not  know  them  and 
in  most  cases  do  not  care  to  do  so.  As  to  mere  illiteracy,  less 
than  20  per  cent  (183,000)  do  not  know  how  to  read  and 
write,  out  of  those  landed  within  the  past  year.  But  business 
men  and  oftentimes  statisticians  have  come  to  look  upon  the 
immigrant  as  the  barometer  of  prosperity  or  panic.  As  soon 
as  the  immigrants  depart  from  America  in  great  numbers,  re- 
turning to  their  native  land,  depression  in  business,  failures, 
strikes,  etc.,  are  foretold.  Surely  if  the  immigrant  knows  so 
keenly  the  conditions  of  labor  and  trade,  he  cannot  be  called 
ignorant,  at  least  not  in  the  contemptuous  sense  of  the  word. 

But  the  point  which  interests  us  much  is  the  fact  that  a 
very  large  amount  of  this  immigration  is  Catholic,  perhaps  the 
majority  of  it.  The  statistics  kept  by  the  United  States  Immi- 
gration Bureau  do  not  show  the  faith  professed  by  newcomers, 
although  the  questions  asked  are  so  searching  as  to  show  age, 
sex,  literacy,  amount  of  money,  friends  and  relatives,  trade 
and  occupation,  disease  and  the  like. 

The  ascertainment  of  a  few  additional  facts  relative  to  their 
professed  faith  would  not  impose  any  hardships  upon  the  im- 
migration officials,  and  might  provide  useful  statistics.  Never- 
theless, we  know,  although  not  accurately,  that  a  very  large 


IMMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES       87 

proportion  of  this  immigration  is  Catholic.  In  the  past,  dur- 
ing the  time  when  the  bulk  of  the  immigration  was  Irish  or 
German,  it  was  said  that  no  helping  hand,  or  at  least  no  ade- 
quate helping  hand,  was  held  out  to  them  in  the  way  of  retain- 
ing them  in  their  ancestral  faith,  and  so,  great  leakages  oc- 
curred, whereby  many  souls  were  lost  to  the  Catholicity  of 
America.  Perhaps  a  sufficient  answer  to  the  complaint  of 
leakage  may  be  in  the  fact  that  in  those  earlier  days  there  was 
a  fierce,  determined  hostility — both  among  the  high  and  the 
lowly — to  Catholicism,  and  that,  at  the  same  time,  the  Church 
was  desperately  poor,  with  meagre  resources  to  provide  for 
the  great  tide  of  newcomers.  The  conditions  are  changed  to- 
day. Great  as  has  been  the  mission  field  about  us  in  these 
United  States,  we  have  progressed  so  far  that  we  have  built 
splendid  churches,  schools,  hospitals  and  charitable  institu- 
tions, and  have  provided  the  material  equipment  for  Christian 
training  throughout  the  entire  country.  At  the  same  time  the 
fierce  hostility  of  old  towards  the  Catholic  Church  has  abated. 
The  field  of  endeavor  in  regard  to  the  immigrant  is  greater 
than  ever  before,  and  more  urgent  in  many  senses  than  in  the 
earlier  immigration  to  these  shores.  We  ought  to  make  the 
most  of  our  opportunity  and  avoid  any  omission  of  our  duty 
towards  the  immigrant,  and  above  all  toward  the  immigrant 
of  Catholic  faith. 

II. — The  Present  Immigration 

THERE  are  now  pouring  into  the  United  States  every 
year  over  one  million  of  immigrants,  of  whom  up- 
wards of  600,000  are  from  the  east  and  south  of  Eu- 
rope and  from  Asia  and  Africa  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean. These  may  be  roughly  classified  as  follows  by  race 
or  nationality  (leaving  out  some  90,000  Jewish  immigrants)  : 

Armenians  4,000 

Bohemians  10,000 

Bulgarians  and  Servians 16,000 

Croatians,  Slavonians  and  Dalmatians   40,000 

Greeks 40,000 

Italians  (from  north)    50,000 

Italians  (from  south) 180,000 

Lithuanians   20,000 

Magyars  (Hungarians)  25,000 

Poles   120,000 


88  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Portuguese    8,000 

Rumanians 12,000 

Russians 6,000 

Ruthenians    (Little  Russians)    20,000 

Slovaks    30.000 

Spanish    8,000 

Syrians     7,000 

Of  these,  it  can  be  seen  that  the  Latin  and  Slav  races  pre- 
dominate. The  Latin  races  amount  to  258,000:  being  230,000 
Italians,  12,000  Rumanians  and  16,000  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese. To  them  may  be  added  20,000  French  from 
the  countries  of  Western  Europe.  The  Slavic  races  fol- 
low as  a  close  second,  amounting  to  242,000:  being  120,000 
Poles,  40,000  Croatians  and  Slavonians,  30,000  Slovaks, 
20,000  Ruthenians,  16,000  Bulgarians  and  Servians,  10,000 
Bohemians  and  6,000  Russians.  The  non-Latin,  non-Slavic 
races  of  Eastern  Europe  and  adjacent  Asia  amount  to  96,000 
more ;  being  40,000  Greeks,  25,000  Hungarians,  25,000  Lithu- 
anians, 7,000  Syrians  and  4,000  Armenians.  All  this  repre- 
sents the  yearly  flood  now  pouring  in  on  us  of  the  various 
Christian  nationalities  from  the  parts  of  Europe  little  known 
to  us,  except  Italy. 

When  we  inspect  this  table  of  nationalities  and  races  still 
further,  we  shall  find  that  the  various  peoples  represented  in  it 
have  little  or  no  affiliation  with  Protestantism,  or  any  of  the 
dominant  Protestant  sects  in  the  United  States.  They  are 
nearly  all  of  them  of  the  Catholic  faith  or  of  the  elder  schis- 
matic churches,  which  have  kept  the  Catholic  faith  almost  in- 
tact. A  bare  handful  of  the  Armenians  are  Protestants ;  the 
great  majority  are  of  the  Gregorian  Armenian  or  schismatic 
church,  while  quite  a  considerable  minority  are  Catholics  of 
the  Armenian  Rite.  The  Bohemians  are  very  largely  Catholic ; 
a  minority  are  Free-Thinkers  and  some  Protestants.  The  Bul- 
garians and  Servians  are  almost  wholly  of  the  Greek  Ortho- 
dox Church.  The  Croatians,  Slavonians  and  Dalmatians  are 
almost  wholly  Catholic.  The  Greeks  are  nearly  all  of  the 
Greek  orthodox  faith.  The  Italians  of  the  north  of  Italy  are 
all  Catholics,  except  such  few  as  are  socialists  or  anarchists. 
The  Italians  of  the  south  of  Italy  are  Catholics,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  socialists  or  anarchists,  and  a  small  minority  are 
Catholics  of  the  Greek  Rite.  The  Lithuanians  are  principally 
Catholics,  a  very   small  minority  being  Free-Thinkers,  with 


IMMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES       89 

occasional  Protestants.  The  Hungarians  (Magyars)  are  over 
three-fifths  Catholic;  the  minority  being  Protestant  and  Free- 
Thinkers.  The  Poles  are  almost  wholly  Catholic.  The  Por- 
tuguese who  come  here,  and  who  settle  chiefly  in  New  Eng- 
land and  California,  are  largely  Catholic,  the  immigration 
caused  now  by  the  efifort  to  escape  the  disadvantages  of  the  so- 
called  Portuguese  republic.  The  Rumanians  are  three-fifths 
Greek  Orthodox  and  two-fifths  Catholics  of  the  Greek  Rite. 
The  Russians  are  about  one-half  Greek  Orthodox  and  one-half 
free-thinking  and  anarchistic.  The  Ruthenians  or  Little  Rus- 
sians are  nearly  all  Catholics  of  the  Greek  Rite.  The  Slovaks 
are  about  three-fourths  Catholics,  the  majority  being  of  the  Ro- 
man Rite  and  remainder  of  the  Greek  Rite,  while  one-fourth 
are  Protestant.  The  Spanish,  who  are  widely  scattered,  are  all 
Catholic,  except  the  few  socialistic  groups.  The  Syrians  are 
about  equally  divided :  one-half  being  Catholics  of  the  Greek, 
Maronite  and  Syrian  Rites,  and  the  other  half  being  Greek 
Orthodox.  Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  larger  part  of  this 
particular  immigration  is  Catholic,  and  it  behooves  us  as  Cath- 
olics to  do  our  part  in  looking  after  it. 

When  we  examine  how  the  immigrants  have  acquitted  them- 
selves in  America,  we  shall  find  that  the  later  ones  have  suc- 
ceeded quite  as  well  as  the  earlier  nationalities  which  preceded  \ 
them.      They   have   established    churches,    schools,    business 
houses   and  newspapers,  and  have  given  every  evidence  of 
ability  and  progress.    When  we  consider  that  for  the  most  part 
they  come  from  countries  which  have  but  little   (except  the 
Christian  religion)  in  common  with  us,  that  they  are  ignorant 
of  our  language,  laws,  history  and  customs,   and  that  their 
own  languages  furnish  but  little  in  the  way  of  grammar,  root- , 
words  and  starting-points,  in  which  to  acquire  ours,  we  may  i 
well  be  astonished  at  the  progress  they  have  made  in  the  years  \ 
they  have  been  here.    Recently  in  an  address  which  I  delivered 
in  New  York  City,  upon  "The  Peoples  of  New  York,"  I  omit- 
ted all  mention  of  the  English-speaking,  German-speaking  and  • 
French-speaking  peoples  dwelling  in  that  great  metropolis,  yet 
I  found  occasion  to  mention  some  twenty  other  nationalities 
and  races  there,  and  commented  favorably  upon  their  progress 
and  development.    In  the  course  of  my  lecture  I  produced  and 
exhibited  to  the  audience  some  93  newspapers  printed  in  vari- 
ous foreign  languages  and  published  either  daily  or  weekly 


90  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

fwithin  the  City  of  New  York.     To  publish  and  send  through 
Ithe  mails,  or  sell  upon  the  news-stands  so  many  journals,  im- 
plies thousands  of  readers,  and  I  am  informed  that  their  vari- 
ous circulations  range  from  i,ooo  to  25,000  copies  each.    These 
j  journals  keep  the  immigrant  who  has  not  yet  acquired  a  com- 
'  mand  of  English  acquainted  with  the  chief  current  events  of  the 
day,  often  clipped  from  our  own  "yellow"  journals,  the  news 
!  of  his  home  country,  and  the  chances  of  work,  business  and 
occupation,  and  the  usual  chronicles  of  birth,  marriage  and 
death,  and  of  the  national  or  mutual  benefit   societies   with 
'which  he  may  be  connected. 
1/^  The  unfortunate  thing  regarding  the  immigrant  is  the  fact 
J\Qi  congestion  in  the  great  cities.     It  is  a  natural  outcome  of 
the  human  desire  for  society,  and  the  forlorn  immigrant  is  apt 
^o  seek  out  and  remain  with  those  who  come  from  his  native 
/ Wllage  or  district,  especially  if  they  be  his  relatives  by  blood  or 
marriage.     Then,  again,  in  the  older  and  more  eastern  coun- 
tries of  Europe  there  is  a  settled  lack  of  individual  initiative : 
"things  are  done  rather  en  masse,  by  concerted  action.     This 
,lias  resulted  in  the  formation  of  societies,  and  every  newly 
arrived  immigrant  feels  at  once  that  he  must  belong  to  one. 
Sometimes  these  work  for  good,  as  when  they  provide  for 
work,  sick  benefits  or  savings  in  one  shape  or  another.     But 
in  the  majority  of  cases  they  work  for  evil,  by  localizing  the 
limmigrant,  making  him  subject  entirely  to  the  societies'  offi- 
cers, and  keeping  him  from  becoming  acquainted  with  the  lan- 
guage, laws  and  customs  of  the  land  to  which  he  has  come. 
This  is  an  important  factor  making  for  the  congestion  of  the 
cities  and  sometimes  has  the  baleful  effect  of  permitting  the 
old    world   governmental   authorities   to   keep   control   of   the 
immigrant  even  while  in  America.     It  even  enables  the  old 
world  secret  societies,  under  the  ban  of  their  own  governments, 
to  retain  a  hold  and  sometimes  exercise  terrorism  over  the 
immigrant  unacquainted  with  our  usages. 

The  evil  of  congestion  may  be  considered  also  in  the  light 
of  the  occupation  of  the  people  whom  it  afifects.  Take  for 
example  the  Italians,  who  are  said  to  number  nearly  600,000 
in  New  York  City,  thus  making  it  the  third  Italian  city  in 
the  world.  They  are  for  the  most  part  country  people,  accus- 
tomed to  agricultural  work  in  the  open,  such  as  the  orchard, 
the   vineyard   and   the   sheepfold.      They   are   diverted    from 


^ 


IMMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES       91 

the  occupation   which   they  know   and   have   practiced   from  ^ 
childhood    and    set    at    tasks    which    ruin    their    health    and 
physique;    and    while    herding   together    in    cheap    tenements 
amid  the  temptations  of  the  streets,  the  saloon  and  moving  1 
picture  shows,  they  lose  their  habits  of  sobriety  and  thrift,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  ruin  of  their  morals  and  health.     Were  1 
they  placed  in  an   agricultural  environment  they  could  give 
better  account  of  themselves  and  sooner  become  active,  pros-  > 
pering  American  citizens,  retaining  their  faith,  their  healthj 
and  their  morals. 

The  attitude  of  the  immigrant  to  the  Church  as  an  institu- 
tion, even  where  they  are  Catholics,  is  most  evident.  The 
growth  of  the  Church  in  the  United  States  has  been  marvel- 
lous through  the  faithful  support  of  the  Irish  immigrant  or 
American-born,  while  the  German  Catholic  has  been  a  noble 
rival.  Aside  from  the  providence  and  grace  of  God,  the 
human  element  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  for  the  past  few 
centuries  the  Irishman  in  his  own  green  isle  has  had  to  fight 
for  the  very  existence  of  his  faith  in  every  material  form. 
The  fight  for  the  welfare  of  the  Church  has  become  ingrained ' 
as  it  were.  The  same  is  true  of  the  German  in  the  face  of 
a  hostile  and  aggressive  Protestant  majority  in  his  fatherland 
and  successive  hostile  enactments  against  the  Church  by  a 
dominant  majority.  It  has  created  a  will  to  assist  in  the  ma- 
terial and  spiritual  progress  of  the  Church,  because  the  gov- 
erning powers  have  been  for  the  most  part  indifferent  or 
hostile. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  the  Church  was  established  by 
law,  and  politicians,  particularly  of  an  ecclesiastical  turn  of 
mind,  seized  the  best  things  from  a  worldly  point  of  view, 
and  administered  churches  more  from  a  political  than  a  spirit- 
ual outlook,  the  interests  of  the  common  layman  waned.  When 
ifi  addition  to  this  he  contributed  to  church  revenues  through 
the  medium  of  taxes  and  imposts,  and  not  through  the  medium 
of  direct  charity  and  interest  in  the  Church  itself,  he  rather 
looked  upon  the  Church  as  one  of  the  wheels  of  government. 
That  has  produced  its  effect  even  in  America.  The  Italian, 
for  instance — and  there  are  other  nationalities — has  looked' 
upon  the  Church  as  something  the  State  provided  for  him. 
much  as  it  provided  streets,  roads,  public  Jjuildings  and  the 
like,  and  he  continues  in  this  frame  of  mind  even  when  he  1 


92  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

/comes  to  America  where  there  is  no  State  Church.  In  fact, 
some  assumed  that  they  had  left  the  Church,  as  an  institution, 
behind  them  in  Italy,  and  some  whom  I  have  known  were 
much  astonished  to  know  that  we  had  any  laws  here  whatever 
in  regard  to  religious  worship  and  decorum  or  church  owner- 
ship. Consequently  they  have  not  made  an  advance  in  church 
life  commensurate  with  their  numbers.  On  the  other  hand, 
nationalities  such  as  the  Slovaks  or  the  Ruthenians,  who  have 
for  nearly  two  centuries  struggled  to  maintain  their  language, 
'nationality  and  oftentimes  their  Church,  are  fired  through  and 
i  through  with  the  idea  of  making  their  church  the  nucleus  of 
Vheir  settlement  and  progress  here  in  America.  This  has 
made  them  as  eager  as  the  Irish  to  build  and  maintain  their 
churches  against  all  odds,  and  they  have  willingly  and  cheer- 
fully given  of  their  substances  to  do  so.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that  these  immigrants  are  eager  for  and  readily  respond 
to  the  influence  which  the  Church  seeks  to  bring  to  bear  upon 
them.  In  their  desire  to  erect  and  maintain  their  churches 
they  regard  them  too  often  as  their  individual  property  and 
are  not  amenable  to  ecclesiastical  supervision,  and  too  often 
break  out  into  factious  disturbance  and  difference;  but  all 
this  may  be  paralleled  in  the  history  of  the  Irish  Catholics  in 
the  United  States  between  1815  and  1850.  A  distinguished 
.ecclesiastic  in  New  York  City  once  assured  me  that  until  the 
immigrant  learned  enough  English  and  became  actively  inter- 
)  ested  in  American  politics,  it  was  no  matter  of  surprise  that 
he  made  a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  dissension  in  the  parochial 
politics  of  his  particular  local  church.  It  was  the  only  thing 
he  could  take  a  vital,  exuberant  interest  in,  and  he  oftentimes 
overdid  the  matter.  But  it  was  a  sign  of  life,  nevertheless,  and 
worth  many  times  the  conduct  of  mere  indifference. 

Another  thing  from  which  the  immigrants  suffer  in  America 
is  the  firm  grasp  which  their  home  governments  try  to  hold 
over  them.    Emigration  to  America  is  not  so  much  a  matter  of 
,-4nere  volition,  of  desire  originating  in  the  breast  of  the  immi- 
■  grant,  as  it  used  to  be.    It  is  now  a  matter  of  commercialism 
,v^  >,  -  to  a  very  large  extent.    Steamship  companies  and  ticket  agents 
V§'   'go   through    Europe   stimulating   emigration   to   America   by 
^         every  device  they  can  invent,  whether  by  advertisement,  can- 
vassing, moving  pictures  or  other  means,  to  set   forth  the 
advantages  of  America.     Enterprising  labor  agents,  notwith- 


IMMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES       93 

standing  the  provisions  of  the  contract  labor  law,  take  a  hand 
in  it  also.  But  beyond  and  above  this  the  central  governments 
of  European  countries,  notably  Hungary,  enter  into  agree- 
ments with  steamship  lines  for  the  exclusive  shipment  of 
their  emigrants  to  the  United  States.  Much  of  this  is  done 
under  cover  of  caring  for  the  welfare  and  good  treatment  of 
the  emigrant  whilst  crossing  the  Atlantic.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that  such  contractual  relations  do  not  make  for  the  sending 
of  the  best  class  of  emigrants. 

The  immigrant  having  arrived  in  America,  the  solicitude  of 
the  home  government  does  not  cease.     That  government  ap- 
points   priests,    clergymen    of    other    denominations,    attaches 
of  consular  offices  and  of  bankers  and  exchange  offices  to  keep 
a  general  supervision  of  the  immigrant  while  in  America  and^ 
to  induce  him  in  the  end  to  return  to  his  fatherland.     This  | 
parental  supervision  often  takes  the  form  of  preventing  him', 
in  a  thousand  indirect  ways  from  becoming  a  citizen  of  the 
United    States.      At   all   times   it   exercises   the   pressure   of  | 
national  feeling,  national  custom,  national  song  and  language 
to  keep  him  as  alien  as  possible  to  the  country  in  which  he 
finds  himself.     He  is  to  regard  himself  as  a  bird  of  passage 
as  far  as  possible.    Where  the  call  and  prompting  of  religion 
can  produce  efifect,  it  is  used  as  an  instrument  to  produce  the 
same    result.      In   the   case   of   a   Russian   mission   here,   the 
inmates    are   always    taught   the   words   Amerikamkaya   Rus 
(American  Russian-land)   and  to  use  the  words  "our  Lord, 
the  Czar,"  thus  directing  them  towards  that  empire  as  their  ^ 
over-lord.     This  indicates  the  agencies  from  without  which) 
take  oversight  of  the  immigrant  and  which  do  not  work  for/ 
his  good  either  in  citizenship,  morals  or  religion.  - 

The  worst  form  of  espionage  of  the  newly  arrived  immi- 
grant is  the  sharper  of  his  own  nationality.  He  may  be  the 
so-called  banker  or  ticket  agent  (who  is  happily  being  weeded 
out  by  severer  laws),  or  the  boarding-house  keeper  or  labor 
broker  who  is  to  procure  him  a  job,  and  the  darker  form  of 
employment  agency  which  makes  it  a  business  to  prey  upon 
women  newly  arrived.  They  speak  the  language,  they  are 
often  of  immediate  practical  service,  and  use  every  device  to 
ingratiate  themselves  into  the  good  graces  of  the  arriving 
immigrant.  Only  the  application  of  the  law  in  full  severity 
can  have  a  deterrent  effect  upon  their  activities.     They  have 


94  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

their  agents  oftentimes  upon  the  other  side,  and  develop  a 
surprising  knowledge  of  the  immigrant,  the  locality  and  family 
when  he  or  she  meets  one  of  them.  This  is  a  field  in  which 
the  Church  from  the  practical  side  might  be  of  the  greatest 
service  by  preventing  the  spoliation  of  the  immigrant. 


III. — The  Church  and  the  Immigrant 

The  immigrant  upon  arriving  in  America  needs  not  only 
care  at  the  time  of  his  arrival,  but  he  needs  it  for  long  after- 
wards. While  I  use  the  word  "he"  as  a  generic  term,  the  femi- 
nine immigrant  needs  care  a  hundredfold  more  than  the  man, 
but  the  one  word  shall  stand  for  both  sexes. 

The  homes  for  receiving  immigrants  have  been  touched  upon 
as  practical  institutions  by  other  speakers,  and  consequently 
I  shall  devote  but  a  small  amount  of  space  to  them.  But  the 
immigrant  needs  a  place  of  reception  here  in  this  land,  so 
strange  to  him,  which  shall  in  some  measure  respond  to  his 
national  and  racial  ideas.  Imagine  the  cheerful  reception 
which  an  Irish  immigrant  would  experience  in  a  home  run 
entirely  by  well-meaning  English  Catholics,  whose  every  man- 
nerism and  idea  was  different  from  those  of  the  Celt.  In  the 
same  way  the  Ruthenian  in  a  Polish  receiving  home,  feels 
himself  alien  and  out  of  place.  The  common  basis  of  a  mutual 
Catholicity  cannot  altogether  bridge  the  chasm,  although  it 
helps   wonderfully.     Therefore   for   those   who   take   part   in 

I  the  first  reception  and  care  of  the  newly  arrived  immigrant, 
there  should  be  a  knowledge  of  the  language,  locality,  history 
and  customs  of  the  immigrant.  They  should  be  able  to 
sympathize  with  him  from  the  standpoint  of  his  home  feel- 
ing, and  to  explain  America  to  him  from  that  viewpoint. 
Above  all,  they  should  understand  his   religious   feelings,  as 

'  developed  by  the  local  mannerisms  and  devotions  of  his  native 
land.  In  this  way  the  immigrant  will  feel  that  a  real  interest 
is  being  taken  in  him  from  the  very  start. 

But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  primary  purpose  for 
which  the  immigrant  comes  is  to  obtain  work.  I  maintain  that 
it  is  here  that  the  church  organizations  can  do  the  utmost 
good  in  putting  the  immigrant  in  touch  with  the  persons, 
localities   and   opportunities  offering  work.     One   Ruthenian 


IMMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES       95 

pastor  in  New  York  makes  a  specialty  of  obtaining  work  for 
his  congregation,  and  boasts  that  a  certain  office  building 
employs  as  scrub-women,  window  cleaners,  furnace  men,  all 
sent  by  him.  In  one  street  in  New  York  I  counted  sixteen, 
labor  bureaus  or  labor  agencies  within  two  avenue  blocks, 
mostly  run  by  sharp-eyed,  anaemic-looking  Hebrews.  Now, 
if  as  many  as  these  can  be  conducted  for  profit  by  private 
persons,  certainly  some  church  charity  could  run  it,  too.  It 
might  even  be  made  self-supporting.  One  of  the  principal 
things  I  saw  offered  in  the  signs  was  house-servants,  and  one 
knows  the  scarcity  of  them. 

Another  thing  is  to  help  the  immigrant  to  get  and  keep 
the  opportunity  of  earning  a  living.    That  is  almost  a  correla- 
tive of  the  congestion  in  the  large  cities.    A  young  woman  who 
is  very  much  interested  in  church  and  charity  work  writes  me 
of  the  need  of  a  day  nursery  in  a  crowded  Italian  quarter  in 
New  York.     There  is  one  nearby  run  by  a  talented  woman 
who  is  unrelenting  in  her  endeavors  to  wean  the  Italians  from 
their  Catholic  faith.     The  Italian  mothers  frankly  say  to  this 
young   woman   that   they   are   obliged   to   place   their   young  ' 
children  in  the  non-Catholic  institution  by  the  day  if  they  are 
to  earn  their  livelihood.     The  children,  and  eventually  the 
mother  and   family,  grow  to  appreciate  the  ones  who  care   , 
for  them.      A  similar  Catholic  institution  would  prevent  all  ' 
this.     And  this  may  be  duplicated  in  any  of  our  large  cities,  i 
It  could  be  avoided  in  large  measure  if  willing  Catholic  hearts  I 
and  hands  would  provide  the  like  in  quarters  where  they  are  I 
needed.    The  loss  to  the  faith  through  the  lack  of  such  oppor-  f 
tunities  is  simply  incalculable.     When  we  add  to  this  clubs  or 
rooms    where    young   women   may   meet   and    have    innocent 
amusement,  we  see  another  means  of  invading  the  Catholic 
faith    of    the    immigrant.      They    are    taught    moral    lessons, 
inculcated   from  the  non-Catholic  point   of   view,   invited   to 
prayers,  addressed  and  assisted  in  every  way  by  those  hostile 
— whether  consciously  or  not — to  the  teachings  of  the  Catholic 
faith.      Something   like   this   must   be   provided   on   our  part  \ 
for  the  children  of  the  immigrant  if  the  tide  in  that  direction   1 
is  to  be  stemmed.     We  must  remember  that  Catholic  mission- 
ary work  can  be  done  most  effectually  sometimes  in  an  indirect 
manner  and  that  the  Church  must  supplement  its  direct  wor- 
ship and  teachings  by  an  appeal  to  the  other  qualfties  of  men 


96  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

and  women.  Above  all,  this  indirect  method  greatly  helps  to 
guard  the  growing  youth  from  running  into  evil  ways  and 
from  abandoning  or  becoming  indifferent  to  the  ancient  faith 
or  of  losing  his  heritage  of  Catholicity. 

It  behooves  us  to  be  on  our  guard  against  the  traps  which 
are  deliberately  laid  to  ensnare  the  immigrant  and  deceive  him 
in  regard  to  his  faith  and  worship.  The  establishment  of  the 
charitable  nurseries  and  settlement  houses  which  are  frankly 
non-Catholic  may  be  ascribed  to  motives  of  mistaken  charity 
I  and  not  to  proselyting  principles,  but  nothing  of  the  kind 
can  excuse  the  pseudo-CathoHc  missions  and  chapels  which 
are  now  being  established  to  attract  the  immigrant  of  Catholic 
faith,  or  of  faiths  allied  to  CathoHcism.  Only  bad  faith  and 
a  species  of  malice  can  explain  such  things. 

In  a  large  Protestant  Episcopal  chapel  of  Trinity  Church 
on  the  East  side  in  New  York  City  there  is  a  sign  which 
reads  in  Italian :  "Ogni  Domenica  LA  MESSA  alle  9  ore," 
that  is,  "Every  Sunday  MASS  at  nine  o'clock."  And  in  this 
chapel  at  nine  o'clock  on  Sunday  morning  a  Latin  Mass  is 
said  in  the  usual  Roman  vestments.  More  than  that,  it  is 
said  by  a  former  priest  who  has  connected  himself  with  this 
mission.  Now  this  is  a  church  which  repudiated  the  Mass 
and  the  Latin  language  some  three  hundred  years  ago,  al- 
though the  extreme  high  churchmen  are  trying  to  revive  it. 
But  it  was  never  thought  that  they  would  use  it  as  a  bait  to 
attract  raw  Italian  immigrants  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church.  Lest  this  be  regarded  as  an  isolated  individual  case, 
attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  late  General  Convention 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  session  at  New  York 
City  "empowered  the  Missionary  Board  of  that  church  to 
bring  to  this  country  Syrian,  Greek  and  Russian  priests  to 
minister  to  congregations  in  need  of  them  in  American 
churches,  and  communicants  of  the  Roman  faith  lacking  a 
church  are  invited  to  take  part  in  this  hospitality,  and  in 
case  a  priest  of  the  foreign  church  is  not  available,  priests  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  are  authorized  to  hold  serv- 
ices as  nearly  as  possible  according  to  the  foreign  rites."  It 
may  be  hospitality  on  the  part  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  but  how  about  the  deceived  foreign  immigrant? 

Other  churches,  not  given  to  liturgy  and  ritual  like  the  Epis- 
copal Church,  have  gone  as  far  as  it  in  their  endeavor  to 


IMMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES      97 

reach  out  for  the  immigrant.  Two  years  ago,  in  "America," 
I  described  the  singular  performances  of  the  Presbyterian 
Board  of  Home  Missions,  which  I  discovered  by  chance.  In 
Newark,  New  Jersey,  and  upon  the  East  Side  in  New  York 
City,  it  was  engaged  in  running  a  complete  imitation  of  a 
Catholic  chapel  of  the  Greek  Rite.  Probably  they  thought 
that,  as  the  Mass-books  and  language  were  in  the  ancient 
Slavonic,  they  would  not  be  easily  detected.  Catholics  of 
the  Roman  Rite  are  not  familiar  with  either  the  language 
or  the  ceremonies  of  Catholics  of  the  Greek  Rite.  An  exami- 
nation of  the  Mass-books  upon  the  altar  showed  that  they 
were  the  official  editions  of  the  Diocese  of  Lemberg,  while 
the  altar  itself  could  not  be  distinguished  from  any  other 
Greek  Catholic  altar,  since  it  had  candles,  crucifix  and  gospels 
as  prescribed.  The  officiating  celebrant  had  a  set  of  gorgeous 
Greek  vestments,  bought  as  I  afterwards  ascertained  from 
a  Catholic  importing  house  on  Barclay  Street,  New  York. 
He  made  the  sign  of  the  cross  at  the  usual  times  in  the 
pseudo-mass  and  gave  the  crucifix  and  the  gospels  to  the 
people  to  kiss,  as  is  usual  in  the  Greek  Rite.  The  prayers  to 
the  Blessed  Virgin  were  intoned  and  recited  in  regular  form 
and  the  choir  sang  the  antiphon  "Through  the  prayers  of  the 
Mother  of  God,  O  Saviour,  save  us!"  At  the  consecration 
the  people  knelt  in  worship,  making  repeated  signs  of  the 
cross  in  the  Greek  manner.  No  one  except  a  liturgical  ex- 
pert, versed  in  the  Greek  Rite,  could  have  told  it  from 
the  Mass  celebrated  in  the  Greek  Catholic  Church.  Yet  not 
only  did  the  Presbyterians  support  both  of  these  missions — 
and  I  am  told  a  third  one  in  Pittsburg — but  they  actually 
advanced  $20,000  to  build  a  church  for  these  Ruthenians  in 
Newark,  where  these  pseudo-rites  might  be  celebrated.  The 
celebrant  at  the  New  York  chapel  was  a  Ruthenian  graduate 
of  the  Bloomfield  Seminary  who  had  received  only  Presby- 
terian ordination.  Yet  they  were  calmly  telling  the  Ruthenian 
immigrant  that  the  Latin  Church  was  not  providing  his  rite 
and  they  were  supplying  the  defect,  hoping  to  make  him 
non-Catholic  eventually,  but  indulging  him  in  his  religious, 
peculiarities  for  a  time  at  least.  The  matter  was  fully  de-' 
scribed  in  "America"  at  the  time,  and  I  am  glad  to  say  that 
several  fair-minded  Presbyterians  took  the  matter  up,  and 
through  their  religious  papers  severely  criticised  the  parties 


98  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

concerned.  They  have  now  modified  the  form  of  worship  to 
the  extent  that  the  celebrant  wears  a  black  Geneva  gown  in- 
stead of  the  elaborate  Greek  vestments. 

The  Baptist  Church  has  also  taken  a  hand  in  trying  to 
capture  the  immigrant.  On  Washington  Square,  south,  in 
New  York  City,  they  have  near  the  Italian  quarter  a  huge 
phurch — the  Judson  Memorial  Church — with  a  blazing  electric 
jcross,  and  services  inside  modelled  in  some  fashion  after 
Catholic  ones.  In  Tompkins  Square,  New  York,  and  in  Penn- 
,sylvania  and  Canada  they  have  the  strange  anomaly,  the  'Tnde- 
ipendent  Greek  Baptist  Church"  with  a  liturgy  and  services  bor- 
rowed word  for  word  from  the  Greek  Catholic  missal.  The 
Archbishop  of  Lemberg  visiting  among  the  Ruthenians  in  Can- 
ada writes :  "Among  others,  there  is  a  Protestant  catechism 
published  in  Ruthenian  to  ensnare  people.  For  example,  it 
admits  the  seven  sacraments,  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
the  name  of  the  Catholic  Church  and  masks  the  heresies  under 
incomprehensible  names.  They  have  adopted  the  whole 
Ruthenian  Rite,  even  with  those  forms  most  repugnant  to 
Protestants,  censers,  holy  water  and  the  like."  I  have  been 
unable  to  visit  other  large  cities  and  find  out  just  what 
chapels,  services  and  the  like  are  made  to  attract  the  immi- 
grant under  the  guise  of  an  imitation  of  Catholic  services,  but 
I  am  told  that  they  occur  in  every  locality. 

Another  somewhat  subtler  method  of  attracting  the  im- 
migrant is  practiced.  The  average  immigrant  from  Eastern 
and  Southern  Europe  is  usually  highly  gifted  in  music.  Con- 
sequently he  loves  his  national  songs,  his  peculiar  music,  and 
everything  musical,  expressive  of  his  nationality.  In  Poland 
they  have  a  lay  vespers  in  the  Polish  language,  and  I  have  of- 
ten heard  the  Psalms  chanted  in  the  cathedral  by  an  enthusi- 
astic congregation.  In  the  Greek  Ruthenian  Catholic  churches, 
the  congregation  often  sings  the  entire  liturgical  parts  of  the 
Mass  through  by  heart,  changing  with  necessary  antiphons  and 
troparia  for  the  day.  In  the  Italian  Greek  Catholic  chapel  in 
New  York  I  have  heard  the  choir  of  girls  and  young  boys, 
whose  native  tongue  is  Italian  and  acquired  tongue  English, 
sing  the  entire  antiphons,  troparia,  responses  and  liturgy  of  the 
Mass  through  in  ancient  Greek.  None  of  our  congregations 
ever  use  the  Latin  of  the  Roman  Mass  in  such  a  facile  man- 
ner.    The  immigrant,  therefore,  loves  music,  particularly  the 


IMMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES       99 

music  of  his  Church  and  his  country.  Lately  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  throughout  the  country  has  undertaken 
to  develop  this  musical  ability  of  the  immigrant  and  has 
frequently  held  "concerts  of  all  nations,"  and  sought  in  every 
way  to  get  the  immigrant  or  his  children  actively  interested 
in  their  association.  Settlement  houses  have  taken  up  the 
same  idea  and  have  sought  out  the  musical  talent  of  the 
immigrant.  But  I  have  yet  to  learn  of  the  matter  being 
taken  up  seriously  in  the  Catholic  missionary  or  charitable 
work.  Here  is  a  field  which  we  may  work  with  excellent 
results. 

Where  the  immigrant  from  Eastern  Europe  is  a  Catholic 
of  an  Oriental  Rite  care  should  be  taken  to  approach  him 
from  that  point  of  view.     Although  they  are  Catholics,  they 
have  a  dread  of  being  "latinized"  or  being  made  adherents  of 
the  Roman   Rite.     It  amounts   almost  to  an   obsession,  but 
racial  warfare  and  history  cannot  be  lightly  expunged  from 
their  minds.     Besides,  the  Holy   See  has   sternly   forbidden 
time  and  time  again  any  meddling  with  the  question  of  their 
rite.     Nevertheless,  our  American   Catholics   do  not  always 
understand  this,  and  treat  the  immigrant  as  though  he  were 
not  a  Catholic  or  at  best  only  a  pretended  Catholic  after  all, 
simply  because  he  does  not  understand  or  care  for  the  Roman 
Rite,    and    cannot   understand    the   Latin    language.      Conse- 
quently, misunderstandings  are  apt  to  occur,  and  harm  is  done. 
It  would  be  well,  now  that  this  immigration  has  assumed  suchi 
proportions,  that  seminary  students  in  our  various  diocesan 
seminaries    should   be   taught  the   elements,   or   at   least   th^ 
obvious  points,  of  the  Greek  or  other  Oriental  Rites,  so  that 
they  might  themselves   comprehend   and  be  able  to   explaii-^ 
to  other  American  Catholics  the  peculiarities  of  those  rites.i 
Thereby  the  immigrant  would  have  a  less  hostile  feeling  even  ; 
where  he  is  Catholic,  and  our  countrymen  be  more  effective  in  j 
good  towards  the  newcomer  in  this  land. 

The  entire  matter  of  the  relation  of  the  Church,  Church 
authorities  and  workers  towards  the  immigrant  is  one  of 
vast  proportions,  and  I  have  but  briefly  touched  upon  them. 
The  Church  can  not  only  afford  him  the  spiritual  oversight 
and  care  which  it  is  ever  eager  and  willing  to  do,  but  can 
also  afford  in  a  great  measure  oversight  of  his  immediate 
temporal  and  physical  needs.     If  any  serious  effort  is  to  be 


100  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

made  to  better  his  situation  and  to  prevent  future  losses  and 
leakages  to  the  Qiurch,  his  welfare  from  every  standpoint 
will  have  to  be  considered.  We  have  done  excellently  in  the 
past,  but  in  the  future  we  must  surpass  all  that  has  hitherto 
been  accomplished.  Otherwise  a  succeeding  generation  may 
have  just  cause  to  complain  of  us. 


THE  POLES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

ATTENTION  has  been  directed  of  late  to  the  Poles, 
the  predominating  Slavic  race  in  the  United  States, 
by  the  recent  celebration  of  the  memory  of  two  Polish 
heroes  of  the  American  Revolution,  Kosciusko  and  Pulaski, 
and  by  the  latest  commemoration  of  the  battle  of  Griinwald, 
near  Tannenberg,  in  East  Prussia,  which,  five  hundred  years 
ago,  shaped  the  destiny  of  the  Polish  people  and  made  them 
a  great  nation.  The  first  was  a  celebration  of  their  union 
in  heart  and  soul  with  America  in  the  memories  of  our  po- 
litical birth  and  development  at  a  time  when  the  star  of 
Poland  was  setting;  the  other  a  glorious  retrospect  of  five 
centuries  that  meant  the  unity  and  development  of  their  own 
people.  The  glory  of  their  ancient  land  and  people  has  been 
dimmed  by  conquest  and  the  parcelling  of  their  territory 
among  alien  rulers,  but  their  life,  language  and  faith  have 
withstood  the  shock,  and  have  made  the  Poles  still  a  factor  in 
the  world's  culture  and  civilization.  Their  later  history  may 
be  called  that  of  Slavic  Ireland,  while  many  of  the  dates  and 
disasters  of  both  are  curiously  coincident. 

The  Poles  are  mingled  with  our  earliest  history.  How 
they  came  to  the  United  States  in  those  early  days  is  a 
mystery.  It  is  even  said  that  a  Pole  discovered  America 
before  Columbus.  John  of  Kolno  (a  town  in  Russian  Po- 
land) commanded  a  Danish  vessel  which  is  said  to  have 
reached  the  coast  of  Labrador  in  1476.  Albert  Zoborowsky 
(Zabriskie)  settled  near  Hackensack  in  New  Jersey  in  1662, 
and  his  name  is  found  as  interpreter  on  an  Indian  contract  for 
the  sale  of  land  dated  1679.  All  the  New  Jersey  and  New 
York  Zabriskies  are  said  to  be  descended  from  his  family.  In 
1659  the  Dutch  on  Manhattan  Island  hired  a  Polish  school- 
master. In  1770  Jacob  Sodowsky  settled  in  New  York  and 
his  sons  were  frontiersmen  in  the  early  settlement  of  Ken- 
tucky.    One  tradition  says   that  the  city  of   Sandusky  was 

lOI 


I02  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

named  after  them.  Our  Revolution  brought  from  Poland 
Kosciusko,  the  hero  of  two  lands ;  Pulaski,  who  died  at 
Savannah,  and  Niemcewicz,  the  Polish  biographer  of  Wash- 
ington. After  the  partition  of  Poland,  and  in  the  early  part 
of  last  century,  occasional  Polish  emigrants  arrived.  The 
Polish  insurrection  of  183 1  sent  us  a  considerable  and  more 
abiding  contingent,  many  of  whom  settled  in  Texas. 

Their  success  may  have  induced  others  to  come,  for  in  1855 
a  large  body  of  them,  headed  by  the  Rev.  Leopold  Moczy- 
gemba,  a  Polish  Franciscan,  settled  in  Texas,  where  their 
first  colony  was  named  Panna  Marya  (Our  Lady  Mary)  and 
where  the  first  Polish  church  in  America  was  built.  The 
Panna  Marya  settlement  was  quickly  followed  by  other 
Polish  colonies  in  Texas,  five  of  which  founded  churches  the 
next  year  and  eleven  others  in  the  course  of  the  next  two 
decades.  The  next  settlement  was  at  Parisville,  Michigan, 
in  1857. 

The  Poles  also  settled  early  in  Wisconsin.  The  earliest 
settlement  was  Polonia,  in  Portage  County,  in  1858,  where 
they  also  established  a  church.  The  church  (dedicated  to 
the  Sacred  Heart)  is  there  yet,  now  a  structure  towering  over 
the  country-side,  built  at  a  cost  of  $70,000.  There  is  a 
magnificent  school  beside  it,  and  the  entire  community,  who 
are  almost  all  Poles  from  Russia,  is  said  to  be  prosperous. 
Other  Polish  colonies  took  root  in  Wisconsin,  which  now  has 
over  250,000  Poles,  foreign-born  and  native.  In  1866  they 
settled  in  Missouri;  in  1869  in  Chicago,  Illinois,  and  in  1870 
in  Pennsylvania.  Indiana,  Michigan,  Ohio,  New  York,  Min- 
nesota, follow  in  order  of  Polish  settlement.  In  the  twenty- 
six  years  from  1855  to  1880,  there  were  eighty-five  Polish 
churches  founded,  for  the  Pole,  like  the  Irishman,  is  usually 
a  practical  Catholic  and  insists  on  having  his  Church  and 
Faith  expressed  visibly  as  soon  as  he  can. 

The  great  mass  of  Poles  who  came  to  this  country  after 
1870  were  the  poorest  of  all  our  immigrants  in  the  goods 
of  this  world.  The  great  mass  of  them  went  to  the  coal 
and  iron  mines  of  Pennsylvania.  Some  one  has  said  of  their 
coming:  "At  one  time  they  came  in  batches,  shipped  by  the 
carload  to  the  coal  fields.  When  they  arrived  they  seemed 
perfectly  aimless.  It  was  hard  for  them  to  make  themselves 
understood,  and  sometimes  they  would  go  up  into  the  brush 


THE  POLES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES         103 

and  undergrowth,  and  build  a  fire  and  sleep,  or  if  it  was  too 
cold,   just   sit  around  there  on  the  ground."     But  as  they 
worked  in   Pennsylvania  they  saved  their  money,  went  into 
small   businesses   and   became   landed  proprietors  in   a   small 
way.     But  in  the  eastern  States  the  Pole  found  a  way  to 
take  up  land  and  become  independent  in  a  much  better  way. 
He  became  a  farm  laborer  from  the  start,  saved  his  earnings, 
and  when  he  had  learned  the  American  way  of  doing  things 
bought  the  land  from  his  employer.     In  this  way  hundreds  of 
what  used  to  be  called  "abandoned  farms"  in  New  England 
have  passed  into  Polish  hands.     And  they  are  making  great 
inroads   upon   the   eastern   end  of    Long   Island  in  the  same 
way.     One  of  the  men  concerned  in  settling  the  Poles  upon 
New  England  farms  says:     "Agents  at  New  York  told  the 
incoming  immigrants  stories  to  make  the  Pole  see  the  Con- 
necticut valley  farms  as  the  promised  land.     Being  new  and 
green  to  America  the  Pole  at  first  paid  the  highest  price  and 
was  given  the  small  end  of  the  bargain.     But  they  succeeded. 
They   make   good   citizens.      Almost    without    exception    they 
are   Roman   Catholics   and   are    faithful   to   their   obligations. 
They  are  willing  to  pay  the  price  to  succeed."     Another  wit- 
ness, a  New  England  college  professor,  says:     "The  Polish 
farmer  uses  as  up-to-date  implements  as  the  American  does. 
The  crops  of  the   Poles  compare  very  favorably  with  those 
raised  by  Americans.    In  one  particular  (that  of  upland  farm- 
ing)   the    Pole    has    taught   the    Americans   a    lesson."      The 
Connecticut   valley   and    western    Rhode    Island    bid    fair   to 
become  New   Poland  in  the  course  of  time.     Meanwhile  in 
Pennsylvania,  Illinois,   New  York,  Wisconsin  and  Michigan 
the  Poles  prospered  and  increased  in  ever-mounting  numbers. 
The  story  of  their  struggles  and  successes  is  no  mean  one. 
Father    Waclaw    X.    Kruszka,    in    his    "Historya    Polka    w 
Ameryce,  Poczatek,  Wrost  i  Rozwoj  Osad  Polskich  w  Stanch 
Zjednoczonych"  (Polish  History  in  America;  Origin,  Growth 
and  Distribution  of  Polish  Settlements  in  the  United  States) 
— thirteen  slender  volumes — gives   facts,   statistics,  anecdotes 
and  historical  gleanings  of  every  kind  in  regard  to  his  coun- 
trymen here,  and  makes  a  fascinating  record  of  their  work  and 
triumph   down  to   the  present  day.     He  estimated  the   total 
Polish  immigration  at  about  2,000,000  and  the  total  number 
of  Poles  in  the  United  States  in  1907  (including  the  Amer- 


I04  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

ican-born  children)  at  over  3,000,000.  The  "Prasa  Polska" 
(Polish  Press)  of  Milwaukee,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1908, 
reckoned  the  Polish  population  of  the  United  States,  including 
foreign  and  American-born,  at  nearly  4,000,000,  and  investi- 
gation has  seemed  to  justify  these  figures.  The  latest  results 
show  the  wonderful  growth  and  increase  of  the  sturdy  Polish 
race  in  this  land  of  freedom. 

Pennsylvania  leads  off  as  the  greatest  Polish  State,  having 
525,000  Poles  within  her  borders.  New  York  State  follows 
close  with  502,000,  of  whom  nearly  250,000  are  to  be  found 
within  the  limits  of  Greater  New  York,  and  80,000  in  Bufifalo. 
Illinois  comes  next  with  450,000,  and  then  Massachusetts  with 
305,000.  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  have  each  250,000,  while 
New  Jersey  has  nearly  200,000.  They  are  scattered  through- 
out the  length  and  breadth  of  the  United  States,  no  State 
being  without  them;  even  Alaska  is  said  to  have  150  of  them. 
Nor  have  they  forgotten  to  bring  their  national  names  along 
with  them,  as  witness  the  various  villages  (some  of  them 
growing  into  towns)  of  Pulaski,  Sobreski,  Krakow,  Gniezno, 
Radom,  Opole,  Wilno,  Tarnow  and  Chojnice,  here  in  the 
United  States. 

The  Poles,  like  the  Irish,  have  been  so  situated  historically 
that  their  poHtical  and  religious  antagonisms  coincide,  intensi- 
fying both.  The  schismatic  Russian  tyrant,  the  Protestant 
Swedish  invader  and  the  later  Prussian  oppressor  have  all 
tended  to  make  devotion  to  Church  and  country  one  mingled 
and  indistinguishable  sentiment.  They  found  the  Catholic 
Church  here  also,  but  to  them  it  was  in  charge  of  an  alien 
race  speaking  an  alien  tongue.  It  therefore  became  their 
natural  desire  to  have  churches  and  priests  of  their  own 
language  and  national  and  historic  aspirations.  Elsewhere 
the  founding  of  the  first  churches  has  been  mentioned.  But 
they  have  kept  the  good  work  up  even  to  the  present  day. 
Up  to  last  year  they  had  517  churches  and  546  Polish  priests 
in  the  United  States.  And  there  is  room  for  many  more,  for 
they  have  some  810  colonies  or  settlements  scattered  at  various 
points  throughout  the  United  States.  Their  clergy  have  risen 
to  many  of  the  higher  dignities  in  the  Church  and  a  Pole  is 
now  the  Assistant  Bishop  of  Chicago.  There  is  no  need 
to  speak  about  the  Polish  parochial  schools ;  they  are  attached 
as  soon  as  possible  to  every  Polish  church,  and  the  pages  of 


THE  POLES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES         105 

the  "Catholic  Directory"  give  them  at  length.  Nor  are  they 
deficient  in  higher  institutions  of  learning.  I  need  only  men- 
tion St.  Stanislaus  College  in  Chicago,  the  Seminary  of  Sts. 
Cyril  and  Methodius  in  Detroit,  and  the  high  schools  of  Mil- 
waukee, Chicago  and  Shamokin.  There  are  also  advanced 
schools  which  will  grow  into  greater  institutions  of  learning 
as  time  goes  on.  All  these  educational  institutions  are  bi- 
lingual and  the  students  are  taught  to  be  Americans  while 
not  forgetting  that  they  are  of  Polish  blood  and  must  know 
the  language  and  history  of  the  land  of  their  ancestors. 


OUR  ITALIAN  GREEK  CATHOLICS 

A  Sketch  of  Their  Rite  in  Italian  America 

A  LARGE  portion  of  Southern  Italy  was  settled  by 
the  Greeks  long  before  the  Roman  republic  fell,  and 
by  the  time  the  Empire  was  established  under  the 
Caesars,  that  portion  of  Italy  was  known  as  "Magna  Graecia" — 
greater  Greece.  At  times  in  its  history  it  rivalled  the  older 
lands  of  Attica  and  the  Peloponnesus.  From  Naples  south- 
ward the  Greek  tongue  and  Greek  manners  and  customs  pre- 
vailed, while  in  Sicily  the  country  and  cities  were  wholly 
Greek.  It  was  in  Southern  Italy  that  the  Romans  had  their 
first  close  contact  with  Greek  learning  and  civilization.  The . 
provinces  of  Italy  proper,  where  the  Greeks  were  the  chief 
inhabitants  and  the  Greek  language  and  culture  prevailed, 
were  Apulia,  Basilicata  and  Calabria,  and  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  present  province  of  Naples. 

The  Romans  in  their  conquest  of  the  east  and  the  west 
loomed  great  as  a  world  power,  but  their  might  and  energy 
had  nowhere  to  be  exerted  more  strongly  in  the  Latinization 
of  neighboring  peoples  than  in  the  southern  confines  of  Italy 
itself.  The  Empire,  as  vast  and  as  strong  as  it  was,  never 
succeeded  fully.  The  Greek  population  of  Italy  lived  side 
by  side  with  their  Latin  neighbors,  yet  never  became  thor- 
oughly Latin.  The  Christian  church  did  what  the  pagan  world 
could  not  do,  and  made  these  people  one  in  religious  thought, 
but  even  that  did  not  fully  extinguish  the  Greek  upon  Italian 
soil.  Even  to-day  in  Southern  Italy  the  Greek  still  lingers 
as  a  spoken  language  in  some  seaport  towns  and  country 
places,  and  the  inhabitants  have  long  been  bi-lingual,  keeping 
their  ancient  tongue  whilst  acquiring  a  new  one. 

The  Italian  Greeks  followed  the  fortunes  of  both  old  and 
new  Rome.  When  Christianity  came  on  the  scene  of  the 
world's   history,   the  Greek  portion  of   Italy  and   Sicily   re- 

io6 


OUR  ITALIAN  GREEK  CATHOLICS  107 

sponded  eagerly  to  the  call  of  the  Master  and  became  Chris- 
tian. It  was  even  easier  than  in  Latin  Italy  because  they 
spoke  the  language  of  the  New  Testament  and  of  the  earliest 
disciples,  and  could  be  reached  by  any  appeal  to  Greek  thought 
and  Greek  ideas.  St.  Paul  himself  on  his  voyage  to  Rome 
was  at  Syracuse  in  Sicily,  at  Reggio  in  Calabria,  and  at 
Puzzoli  near  Naples.^ 

Being  Greek  in  language  and  in  blood,  it  was  but  natural 
that  the  Greeks  of  Southern  Italy  should  take  their  rites  and 
ceremonies  from  the  Eastern  Church  in  the  language  of  the 
New  Testament  and  the  earliest  Fathers  and  Councils.  When 
Constantinople  became  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Roman 
Empire  after  the  recognition  of  Christianity  under  Constantine, 
the  Greek  Rites  of  Southern  Italy  naturally  aligned  themselves 
according  to  the  rites  of  the  Greek  Church  (St.  Sophia)  of 
Constantinople.  That  noble  rite  was  the  final  embodiment  and 
ultimate  form  of  the  rites  of  the  Oriental  Church  using  the 
Greek  language,  as  modelled  by  Saints  Chrysostom,  Basil  and 
Gregory,  and  its  use  was  made  well-nigh  universal  in  the 
whole  Greek-speaking  world,  by  the  pre-eminence  of  Con- 
stantinople, the  New  Rome,  the  capital  city  first  of  the  whole 
Roman  Empire  after  Constantine,  and  then  of  the  Eastern 
Roman  Empire.  The  Greek  Rite  in  the  East  became  like  the 
Roman  Rite  in  the  West ;  it  dominated  and  overcame  the  vari- 
ant rites  around  it.  Thus,  from  the  early  ages  of  Christianity 
down  to  the  time  of  the  schism  of  the  East  and  the  West,  the 
Italian-Greeks  of  the  south  of  Italy  looked  towards  Con- 
stantinople and  its  Oriental  Rite. 

Greek  was  their  language  and  their  form  of  Christian  wor- 
ship, while  the  Latin  Rites  and  the  Latin  language  were  in  a 
measure  strange  to  them.  Nothing  concerning  the  faith  was 
involved  in  this — they  were  Catholics  and  continued  in  the 
unity  of  the  faith  with  the  Roman  Church — but  it  involved  the 
external  manifestation  of  that  faith.  They  were,  as  I  have 
said,  and  I  use  the  expression  advisedly  to-day,  all  Catholics; 
for  that  word  connotes  at  once  universality  and  unity,  and 
one  cannot  conceive  logically  of  a  Catholic  separated  from 
the  centre  of  unity.  At  the  same  time,  however,  they  were 
Greek  Catholics  and  not  Roman  Catholics,  inasmuch  as  they 
used  the  Greek  and  not  the  Roman  Hturgy  and  worship.     So 

i  Acts,   xxviii,    12,    13. 


io8  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

did  eighteen  of  the  Popes  who  sat  in  the  chair  of  Peter  at 
Rome,  one  of  whom  wrote  or  compiled  the  Mass  of  the 
Presanctified  as  it  is  used  in  the  Greek  Church  to-day, 
whether  Catholic  or  schismatic.  Therefore,  in  all  my  state- 
ments I  use  the  word  Catholic  as  indicating  the  faith,  and 
Greek  or  Roman   as  indicating  the   rite. 

When  the  division  of  the  Roman  Empire  into  the  East  and 
the  West  under  Valentine  and  Valens  came,  Southern  Italy 
was  regarded  as  forming  a  part  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  Dur- 
ing the  Prankish  wars  and  the  invasion  of  the  Goths,  Southern 
Italy  remained  Greek.  Nay,  more;  during  Justinian's  reign 
and  long  after,  the  Greek  Eastern  part  of  the  Empire  made 
inroads  upon  Latin  Italy.  Witness  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna 
and  the  holding  of  the  Eastern  coast  of  Italy.  It  was  not 
until  Leo  the  Isaurian,  Emperor  of  Constantinople  and  the 
Eastern  Empire,  openly  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Iconoclasts 
and  forbade  the  use  of  images  or  pictures  in  the  churches  in 
726,  that  the  northern  and  central  Italians  rallied  against  the 
Greeks  upon  Catholic  lines.  The  southern  part,  however, 
remained  Greek  and  semi-independent. 

When  the  break  between  Rome  and  Constantinople  came  in 
the  Great  Schism  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches, 
the  Greeks  of  Italy  held  firm  to  the  faith  professed  by  the 
Roman  See.  Sicily  at  times  was  wavering,  for  some  of  its 
bishops  were  Photians  and  some — perhaps  the  majority — 
were  Catholic.  Indeed,  the  schism  was  in  its  beginning  mainly 
political,  arising  out  of  the  fierce  party  strife  around  the 
Imperial  throne  at  Constantinople,  but  a  theological  basis  and 
a  complete  diflference  of  rite  embodied  it  forever  in  the  minds 
of  the  people.  In  Italy,  however,  these  bitternesses  were 
lacking.  Italy  indeed  had  passed  through  the  devastating 
campaigns  of  the  Goth  and  the  Vandal,  the  Lombard  and  the 
Greek,  and  all  the  changes  of  the  monarchies  of  the  North, 
but  at  its  southern  end  the  Greeks  lived  mainly  in  harmony 
with  their  Latin  neighbors,  and  so  one  chief  incentive  to 
schism  was  lacking.  Even  in  Sicily  the  schism  rapidly  died 
out  and  at  no  time  was  it  violently  opposed  to  the  Roman  Rite 
with  which  it  had  so  long  lived  in  unity  and  harmony. 

During  the  early  period  of  the  schism  of  Constantinople, 
when  the  break  was  at  its  bitterest,  we  can  cite  no  better 
example  than  St.  Nilus  and  St.  Bartholomew  of  Calabria,  of 


OUR  ITALIAN  GREEK  CATHOLICS  109 

whom  we  shall  speak  later  more  at  length.     Both  were  Greek 
Italian  saints,  and  earnest  lovers  of  the  Greek  Rite.    The  first 
founded   in    1002   that   noble   Greek   monastery,   just   outside 
of  Rome  on  the  Alban  hills,  which  now  for  nearly  a  thousand 
years  has  kept  up  the  praises  of  God  in  the  Hellenic  tongue 
and  Eastern  Rite,  and  which  Pope  after  Pope  has  praised  and 
bidden  go  its  way,  unchanging,  as  a  witness  of  the  union  of 
the  East  and  the  West.     And  St.  Bartholomew,  the  pupil  of 
St.  Nilus,  labored  equally  hard  to  make  that  monastery  the 
exponent  of  Greek  monastic  thought  and  art,  which  at  last  it 
became.     Yet  in  the  days  of   St.  Nilus,  a  Calabrian  Greek 
bishop,  by  the  name  of  Philagathus,  had  managed  to  secure 
some  votes  as  Pope,  declared  himself  elected  and  assumed  the 
name  of  John  XVI,  Pope  of  Rome.    One  would  have  supposed 
that  with  the  Photian  controversy  not  yet  died  away,  that  he 
would  have  supported  the  Greek  prelate  in  his  assumption  of 
the  Pontifical  Throne,  but  instead  of  that  he  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  Latin  Gregory  V,  the  Pope  legitimately  elected, 
though  perhaps  by  an  exceedingly  slender  majority.     It  was 
the  espousal  of  Gregory's  cause  and  the  honor  paid  the  Roman 
See  which  afterwards  led  to  St.  Nilus  going  to  Rome  and 
there  founding  the  celebrated  monastery,  as  related  in  his  life 
by  Saint  Bartholomew. 

Although  the  Italian  Greeks  held  both  to  their  faith  and 
their  rite,  as  it  was  before  the  schism  of  860,  being  Greeks 
continuously  and  uninterruptedly  in  communion  with  Rome, 
nevertheless,  the  mere  fact  that  they  ceased  to  be  in  harmony 
with  their  Eastern  brethren  caused  them  to  dwindle.  And, 
after  the  schism,  there  grew  up  among  the  Italians  of  the 
Roman  Rite  the  idea  that  the  Greek  language  and  the  Greek 
ritual  was  in  some  way  identified  with  and  indicative  of  schism. 
It  took  two  or  three  hundred  years  or  more  for  this  idea  to 
take  firm  hold,  but,  after  the  various  attempts  at  reunion, 
and  finally  after  the  Council  of  Florence,  the  failure  of  the 
Greeks  to  adhere  to  the  Union  there  proclaimed  made  the 
Greek  Rite  and  the  schism  almost  identical  in  the  uneducated 
mind.  These  causes  operated  strongly  to  diminish  the  use  of 
the  Greek  Rite  in  Italy,  and  gradually  the  ItaHan  Greeks,  as 
they  lost  their  Greek  mother-tongue,  ceased  to  practise  their 
Greek  ritual  and  assumed  the  Roman  Rite  instead.  In  this 
manner  they  ceased  to  be  Greeks  and  became  Italians,  so  that 


no  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

the  Roman  Rite  took  a  larger  hold  on  them  as  they  became 
Latinized  in  tongue.  Lack  of  close  ties  with  Constantinople, 
and  the  practical  cessation  of  intercourse  with  it  and  the  East 
after  the  domination  of  the  Turk  was  also  gradually  turning 
them  into  Roman  Catholics.  The  Greek  Rite  became  more 
and  more  confined  to  monasteries,  religious  houses  and  coun- 
try towns.  Whilst  the  Greek  Rite,  descended  from  people  of 
the  original  Greek  stock  of  Italy,  would  never  perhaps  have 
died  out  altogether  in  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  yet  it  was 
destined  to  be  reinforced  in  a  singular  way  by  the  churches 
of  Greece  and  Constantinople,  through  a  people  who  claim  to 
be  older  than  the  days  of  Homer  and  the  twilight  of  the  Greek 
gods. 

In  Albania,  the  ancient  Epirus  of  the  Greeks,  there  lived  a 
race  of  mountaineers,  some  of  whose  descendants  still  dwell  in 
the  land  of  their  fathers.  They  spoke  a  language  which  is 
said  by  philologists  to  be  older  than  the  Greek — in  fact,  the 
ancient  Epirate  tongue — and  they  claimed  to  be  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  Greek  peninsula,  driven  gradually  inland  by 
the  colonizing  force  of  Greek  civilization.  Certain  it  is  they 
were  in  the  mountains  of  Albania,  had  their  own  language' 
and  customs  long  before  the  Greek  came  there.  Early  in  the 
days  of  Christianity  these  hardy  mountain  folk  were  converted 
to  Christianity  and  followed  the  Oriental  rite.  But  they  did 
not  use  the  Greek  language,  as  the  Greeks  in  Italy  did,  as  their 
vernacular.  The  liturgy  was  never  translated  into  their 
tongue,  as  it  was  for  the  Slavic  races  by  Sts.  Cyril  and  Me- 
thodius. They  always  used  the  Greek  language  in  the  Mass 
and  church  rites,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Germanic  peoples 
received  the  Latin,  and  as  the  Latin  is  used  among  the  English- 
speaking  people  to-day  in  the  church — i.e.,  as  a  dead  language. 
It  was  during  the  early  days  of  the  Greek  or  Eastern  Empire 
of  Constantinople  that  the  name  of  Epirus  was  dropped  and 
the  name  Albania  used.  Although  Greek  in  rite,  the  Albanians 
were  only  nominally  Greek  in  subjection  to  the  Empire.  Dur- 
ing the  decline  of  the  Empire,  they  rose  to  distinction  and  at 

1  The  language  itself   is  very   strange.  "Questa  lingua  albanese,  che  deve  essere 

Skyiperia    is     the     Albanian     name     for  una    della    piii    antiche    d'Europa,    forse 

Albania;      the      Albanian     language     is  anche    della     piu    antiche    del    mondo. 

Skyiptar.     It  does  not  seem  to  resemble  Questa     sembra     essere     I'antica     lingua 

any     other     European     language.       "Po  pelasga,     da     cui     hanno     preso    tanto     i 

Skyiptari  tak  i  hoi,  isht  si  szogka  jasht  greci     che     i     latini."       Vannutelli,     Le 

folees."       But    Albanians    in    a    strange  Colonie  Italo-Greche,  p.   58. 
land   are    like    birds   out   of    their    nest. 


OUR  ITALIAN  GREEK  CATHOLICS  in 

last  to  independence.  They  maintained  their  independence 
against  the  Bulgarian  Slavs,  against  the  Greek  Empire  of  East- 
ern Rome,  and  for  a  long  time  against  the  Turk.  As  they  had 
gained  their  independence  against  Constantinople  before  the 
schism,  or  before  it  had  made  any  progress  among  them,  they, 
while  Greek  in  rite,  remained  steadfast  to  the  unity  of  the 
Church.  Their  independence  of  Constantinople  accentuated 
their  steadfastness  to  the  Holy  See.^ 

The  Turks  and  Saracens  had  threatened  all  Europe  during 
the  Middle  Ages.  By  1400  they  had  occupied  all  the  richest 
and  most  flourishing  provinces  of  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire, 
and  were  threatening  Constantinople  itself.  They  invaded  Al- 
bania and  subjected  it  to  their  rule.  They  took  away  the  son 
of  the  hereditary  prince,  the  little  George  Castriot,  as  a  hos- 
tage and  kept  him  at  the  Ottoman  Court,  where  he  was  brought 
up  under  Mussulman  surveillance  as  an  officer  in  the  Turkish 
military  service.  There  he  received  the  name  of  Alexander 
Bey  (called  by  the  Albanians  Skanderbeg)  and  distinguished 
himself  under  the  Sultan  Amurath  II.  In  1443,  while  on  an 
expedition  against  the  Huns,  he  heard  that  his  father  had  died 
and  that  he  was  prince  of  Albania.  About  the  same  time  John 
Hunyadi  defeated  the  Turkish  army  which  Scanderbeg  had 
left.  Scanderbeg  then  boldly  proclaimed  himself  a  Christian 
prince  and  fought  for  the  liberty  of  Albania.  His  countrymen 
rallied  around  him  and  for  twenty  years  a  fierce  but  unsuc- 
cessful war  was  waged  for  liberty  and  faith. 

After  the  battle  of  Croia,  in  1443,  he  sent  to  Pope  Eugene  IV 
for  a  refuge  in  Christian  lands,  where  his  people  might  rest 
secure  from  Turkish  power,  and  the  first  emigration  of  the 
Albanians  began.  Gradually  the  Turkish  forces  captured  the 
cities  of  Albania,  utterly  destroying  them,  and  in  1448  a  new 
emigration  of  the  Albanians  under  Demetrio  Reres  and  his  two 
sons,  George  and  Basil,  took  place.  They  and  several  thousand 
of  their  countrymen  helped  the  King  of  Naples  to  put  down  a 
rebellion  in  his  kingdom.  For  this  King  Alfonso  of  Naples 
granted  them  lands  in  Calabria,  where  they  settled  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  Greek  religious  houses  and  monasteries.  As  Scan- 
derbeg was  again  and  again  defeated,  larger  emigrations  of  the 

i"GH    Albanesi   venuti   in    Sicilia    non  1736,     p.     71-       Amico,     Lexicon     Typo- 

aderivanno     alio     scisma,     ma     professa-  graphicum,      vol.     II,     p.     86.       Rodota, 

vanno    invece    il    rito    greco   unito,    come  Sforia  del  Rito  Greco,  vol.    Ill,   P-    i?°- 

affermano     Giovanni     di     Giovanni,     De  Schiro,     Gh    Albanesi    a    Leone    XIII, 

Diinnis     Siculorum      OfKciis,      Panormi,  p.  9." 


112  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Albanians  took  place,  going  into  and  settling  in  Sicily.  By 
the  help  of  the  Sicilians,  the  tide  again  turned  in  favor  of  Scan- 
derbeg,  and  in  1450  Amurath  II  undertook  to  make  peace  with 
him.  At  this  time  the  third  and  greatest  emigration  of  the 
Albanians  took  place,  and  they  settled  chiefly  at  Palazzo  Adri- 
ano,  Mezzojuso,  Contessa,  Piana  dei  Greci  and  Palermo  in 
Sicily.  After  the  death  of  Scanderbeg,  in  1467,  and  the  taking 
of  Croia  by  the  Turks,  larger  migrations  of  the  Albanians  fol- 
lowed. These  settled  in  Basilicata,  Calabria,  Sicily,  and  even 
the  Abruzzi.  From  1460  to  1506  the  Kings  of  Naples  were 
continually  making  land  grants  to  the  Albanians  all  over  their 
territories.^ 

Bringing  the  Greek  rite  and  Greek  language  (as  a  learned 
and  ecclesiastical  tongue)  with  them,  they  naturally  accommo- 
dated themselves  to  the  Greek  population  they  found  around 
them,  and  followed  on  Italian  soil  the  beloved  rite  and  faith 
which  they  had  so  valorously  defended  against  the  Turks. 
And  they  in  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily  had  good  reason  to 
make  common  cause  with  them,  for  the  yoke  of  the  Saracen 
had  been  lately  removed  from  them.  Pope  after  Pope  con- 
firmed their  rights  to  their  Greek  forms  and  strange  tongue, 
and  the  civil  powers  enforced  them.  Leo  X  and  Paul  III  par- 
ticularly defended  these  strangers  of  the  Greek  rite. 

Gradually,  however,  they  became  Italianized,  and  in  the 
course  of  three  centuries  bi-lingual.  Even  now  the  Albanian 
language  remains  among  them  in  remote  country  districts  like 
the  Irish  used  to  be  in  Ireland.  I  have  had  pointed  out  to  me 
in  New  York  an  old  Italo-Albanese  woman,  of  whom  it  was 
said  she  spoke  only  Albanian  and  no  Italian.  But  that  is  rare, 
and  the  average  Italo-Albanese  or  Italo-Greek  is  hard  to  dis- 
tinguish except  by  his  devotion  to  the  Greek  Catholic  rite. 

All  these  people  in  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily  are  miserably 
poor.  In  Calabria  and  Basilicata  they  have  little  or  nothing  to 
live  on.  Their  very  poverty  has  contributed  to  the  decline  of 
their  Greek  rite.  They  could  not  keep  up  their  churches  beau- 
tifully, decently  and  in  good  order,  nor  could  they  spare  their 
sons  for  the  priesthood.  Every  effort  had  to  be  made  to  strug- 
gle for  a  bare  livelihood,  and  the  luxury  of  sending  a  sturdy, 

^  Giustppe  Ls.  Mantia,  I  CapitoH  delle  II    Rito    Greco    in    Italia,    Rome,     1758, 

Colonic    Greco-Albanesi,    Palermo,    1904-  3    vols.      Vincenzo    Vannutelh,    Sguardt 

Francesco   Tajani,    U    Istoria   Albanesi,  all'    Oriente,    XVI,    Rome,    1890. 
Salerno,    1886.     Pietro  Pompilio  Rodoti, 


OUR  ITALIAN  GREEK  CATHOLICS  113 

healthy  boy  to  school  and  college,  whence  he  might  or  might 
not  emerge  a  suitable  candidate  for  the  seminary,  was  put 
aside  in  favor  of  the  active  duties  of  peasant  life.  It  was  the 
struggling  priest,  and  often  the  priest's  own  family,  which  re- 
tained the  Greek  rite  and  furnished  its  candidates  for  the 
priesthood  amid  such  poverty.  Thus  it  became  easier  and 
more  direct  for  the  Greek  peasant  to  turn  to  the  Latin  churches 
around  him  for  the  Sacraments  and  worship,  because  of  the 
lack  of  his  own. 

The  Italian  Greek  Catholics  of  to-day  are  therefore  com- 
posed of  the  descendants  of  the  Greek  inhabitants  of  Southern 
Italy  and  the  descendants  of  the  Albanians  who  came  to  Italy 
in  1443-1490.  Many  of  their  villages  have  changed  to  the 
Roman  rite,  partly  because  of  the  influence  of  their  Latin 
neighbors  around  them,  and,  within  the  past  thirty  years,  be- 
cause of  the  abolition  of  the  monasteries  by  the  Italian  govern- 
ment since  1870.  Of  the  eight  Greek  Catholic  monasteries, 
which  were  in  Sicily  and  Southern  Italy  prior  to  1870,  not  two 
remain.  They  were  the  central  points  for  keeping  alive  the 
Greek  rite,  a  task  which  the  parish  priest  with  the  multitude 
of  his  labors  cannot  so  well  do.  The  only  Greek  monastery 
now  left  is  that  of  Grotta  Ferrata  of  the  monks  of  Saint  Basil 
founded  in  1002  by  Saint  Nilus.  It  has  been  declared  a  "Na- 
tional Monument"  by  the  Italian  Government,  and  hence  re- 
mains undisturbed.  There  is  an  Oratorian  monastery  at  Plana 
dei  Greci,  in  Sicily,  which  is  a  curious  example  of  a  Latin 
order  taken  up  by  Greek  priests  in  1730,  but  only  two  priests 
of  the  order  are  left.  There  are  also  the  Greek  College  at 
Rome,  the  College  of  San  Adriano  in  Calabria  and  the  Semi- 
nario  Greco  of  Palermo,  for  the  education  chiefly  of  candidates 
for  the  priesthood  according  to  the  Greek  rite.  There  is  a 
Greek  convent  for  women,  Santa  Macrina,  at  Plana  dei  Greci. 

The  number  of  Greek  Catholics  in  Italy  is  hard  to  ascertain 
exactly.  I  have  inquired  of  the  Italian  governmental  authori- 
ties in  vain;  and  I  cannot  say  that  the  church  authorities  of 
either  the  Roman  or  the  Greek  Rite  have  returned  much  more 
satisfactory  answers  to  the  questions  addressed  to  them.  But 
from  all  my  inquiries  and  a  study  of  the  latest  Italian  census 
tables  (the  census  of  1901)  it  seems  that  the  Greek  Catholics 
in  Italy  (according  to  origin  or  descent)  are  about  as  follows : 
Albanesi,  93,000;  Greek  descent,  31,200;  Slavic  descent,  30,- 


114 


ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 


ooo ;  making  a  total  of  154,200.^  On  the  other  hand,  the  Greek 
Orthodox  in  Italy  are  given  as  amounting  to  3,472.  All  of 
these  make  but  a  small  number  in  a  total  population  of  thirty- 
three  million. 

Cardinal  Vincenzo  Vannutelli,  in  his  "Colonie  Italo-Greche," 
says  large  numbers  of  the  Greek  Catholics  have  emigrated 
from  Calabria  and  Sicily  to  America,  and  tells  of  having  found 
whole  Calabrian  villages  nearly  deserted,  save  for  a  few  old 
people,  the  younger  generation  having  all  emigrated  to  Amer- 
ica. The  Italian  figures  of  emigration  seem  to  show  the  same 
thing.  For  example,  in  1903,  there  were  230,622  emigrants 
from  Italy  to  the  United  States.  Of  these  the  chief  provincial 
figures  were  as  follows:  Sicily,  58,820;  Calabria,  33,999  5 
Abruzzi,  46,349;  Apulia,  21,210;  making  a  total  of  over  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  emigration  that  year  from  Southern  Italy. 
The  figures  of  Calabria  are  peculiarly  suggestive.  These  emi- 
grants went  away  forever,  since  only  878  are  marked  down 
as  intending  to  return. 

In  and  around  Rome  there  are  three  Greek  Catholic 
churches,  of  which  the  fine  Church  of  San  Atanasio  dei  Greci, 
at  the  corner  of  Via  del  Babuino  and  Via  dei  Greci,  is  the 
largest  and  finest.  It  stands  next  to  the  famous  Greek  College, 
where  students,  whether  Pure  Greek,  Ruthenian  Greek,  Ru- 
manian Greek,  or  Melchite  Greek,  are  educated  according  to 
their  rite.  This  church  has  its  greatest  festival  in  the  Solemn 
High  Mass  according  to  the  Greek  Rite  celebrated  on  Epiphany, 
when  the  Greek  ritual  is  seen  at  its  best.  In  the  College  of  the 
Propaganda  Fide,  in  the  Piazzi  di  Spagna,  Greek  students  are 
also  educated  and  have  their  own  chapel. 

The  most  magnificent  church  near  Rome  is  that  of  the  Basi- 
lian  Monastery,  at  Grotta  Ferrata,  twelve  miles  from  the  city. 

In  Calabria,  Basilicata  and  Apulia,  in  Southern  Italy,  there 
are  some  34  churches,  Greek-Catholic,  and  in  several  other 
villages  both  the  Latins  and  Greeks  worship  in  the  same 
Roman  church. - 


iThe  Albanesi  are  given  as  distrib- 
uted through  Foggia,  Avedino,  Potenza, 
Teramo,  Campobasso,  Lecce,  Palermo, 
Messina,  Girgenti,  and  the  Calabrian 
mountains.  The  Greeks  are  in  Calabria, 
Basilicata,  Consenza  and  Puglie.  The 
Slavic  races  (originally  from  Dalmatia, 
Montenegro  and  other  trans-Adriatic 
sources)  are  in  Larino,  Campobasso, 
Chieti,  Abruzzi,  Lanciano  and  Udine. 


2  The  Greek  churches  are  in  the  fol- 
lowing localities:  in  Calabria,  Vac- 
carizzo,  San  Giorgio  Albanese,  San 
Demetrio,  San  Cosmo,  Macchia,  San 
Adriano,  Santa  Sophia  d'Epiro,  Spez- 
zano,  Lungro,  San  Benedetto  Ullano, 
Castroreggio,  Acquaformosa,  Farneta, 
Rossano,  Civita  Firmo,  Frassineto, 
Marri,  Percile,  and  San  Basilio:  in 
Basilicata,    San   Paolo,    San  Constantino, 


OUR  ITALIAN  GREEK  CATHOLICS  115 

At  Bari,  in  Apulia,  there  is  the  Greek  Catholic  Church  of 
San  Nicolo  di  Mira,  where  the  body  of  St.  Nicholas  of  Myra — 
the  great  saint  of  the  Greek  Church — is  entombed.  It  was 
brought  from  Lycia  by  the  Crusaders ;  and  Greeks  from  Italy, 
Greece,  Russia,  Austria,  Rumania,  Turkey  and  Asia  Minor 
come  here  every  year  to  venerate  his  shrine. 

In  Sicily  there  are  20  Greek-Catholic  churches,  chiefly  in  the 
Dioceses  of  Monreale  and  Palermo.^  The  Church  of  San 
Nicolo  dei  Greci,  in  Palermo,  has  a  fine  iconostasis,  and  is  the 
church  of  the  Greek  seminary.  The  Church  of  San  Demetrio, 
in  Piana  dei  Greci,  has  been  declared  a  "National  Monument." 
There  are  also  Italian  Greek  Catholic  churches  in  Naples,  Va- 
letta  in  Malta,  Chieti  and  Villa  Badessa  in  the  Abruzzi,  Leg- 
horn, and  in  Cargese  in  Corsica.  There  are  also  Greek  Catho- 
lics in  Venice,  Ancona,  Florence  and  Ravenna.  In  Venice  and 
Ancona,  t4ie  Greek  churches,  which  were  formerly  Greek  Cath- 
olic, are  now  Greek  Orthodox,  having  turned  schismatic.  The 
Greek  Church  of  San  Giorgio,  in  Venice,  is  a  very  handsome 
edifice.  In  Naples,  the  Greek  Orthodox  have,  after  a  long  Hti- 
gation,  commencing  in  1871,  also  won  the  finest  and  largest 
Greek  church,  leaving  the  smaller  one  to  the  Greek  Catholics. 

The  Greek  Catholic  clergy  in  Italy  are  under  three  bishops, 
none  of  whom  has  diocesan  jurisdiction,  being  only  titular 
bishops  of  Oriental  dioceses,  but  who  have  jurisdiction  in  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  the  Greek  rite,  and  who  ordain  all  the  Greek 
clergy,  and  in  most  cases  give  the  sacrament  of  confirmation. 
In  Italy,  the  Greek  Catholic  priests  do  not  confer  the  sacra- 
ment of  confirmation,  as  is  usual  elsewhere  in  the  Greek  rite.^ 

I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  the  number  of  monks  at 
the  Basilian  monastery  of  Grotta  Ferrata.  The  number  of 
Greek  Catholic  priests  in  Sicily  is  50,  and  in  Calabria  and 
Southern  Italy  about  60;  while  the  number  of  Greek  clergy  at 
Rome  (including  intended  missionaries  and  monks  of  Basil) 
is  probably  about  50.  Besides  these,  there  are  from  one  to  two 
Greek  priests  at  each  of  the  churches  in  the  other  parts  of 
Italy  and  the  islands  of  Malta  and  Corsica. 

The  priests  are  either  an  Arciprete,  that  is  a  rector  of  the 

Montalbano,     Casalnuovo:      in     Apulia,  Contessa,    Entellina,    Piano    dei    Greci, 

Lecce,    Taranto,    Otranto,    Bari,    Nardo,  and     Messina,     Girgenti,     besides     some 

Bau,  Galatino,   Barletta  and  in  many  of  country    districts    and    small    places, 

the   surrounding  villages.  *  Constitutio     Benedicti     XIV,     "Etsi 

^  The    Greek    churches    in    Sicily    are  pastoralis,"   June    i,    1742,    III,   4. 
at  Palermo,  Mezzojuso,  Palazzo  Adriano, 


ii6  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

principal  church  (chiesa  madrice),  or  an  eiimerios,  or  ordi- 
nary parish  priest,  or  assistant  clergyman.  All  priests  are 
called  Papas,  answering  to  our  "Reverend"  or  "Father."  The 
Greek  priests  of  Italy  are  required  to  keep  more  closely  to  the 
forms  and  usages  of  the  Greek  rite  than  the  Greek  Catholic 
priests  of  Galicia  and  Hungary  who  use  the  Slavonic  liturgy. 
The  Italian  Greek  priests  are  not  allowed  to  be  shaven,  but  are 
required  to  wear  beards,  like  their  brethren  of  the  Orthodox 
church,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Roman  clergy,  and  they 
all  use  the  distinctive  dress  of  the  Greek  church.  They  all 
wear  the  camilaiio,  or  Greek  biretta,  and  the  flowing  Greek 
cassock,  while  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  priests  are  in 
most  cases  shaven  and  wear  the  Roman  cassock  and  a  curious 
biretta,  resembling  a  Greek  bishop's  mitre,  but  which  is  neither 
Greek  nor  Roman  in  form. 

The  language  of  the  liturgy  is  the  ancient  Greek,  as  used 
in  Constantinople,  Athens  and  the  East.  The  pronuncia- 
tion of  this  Greek  is  not  what  we  have  been  taught  in  the 
schools  and  colleges  of  America.  It  is  neither  "continental" 
nor  "Erasmian."  The  Greek  of  the  Mass  and  religious  rite  is 
pronounced  exactly  as  the  modern  Greek  of  Athens  is.  A 
Greek  priest  in  Rome  or  Sicily  will  utter  the  words  of  the 
Holy  Liturgy  with  the  same  pronunciation  as  a  Greek  priest 
in  Athens,  Constantinople  or  Jerusalem.  The  only  differences 
in  the  words  of  the  Mass  are  that  at  the  Great  Synapte  the 
Greek  Catholics  pray  "for  our  Supreme  Pontiff,  the  Pope  of 
Rome,"  while  those  of  Athens  pray  for  the  Synod  and  its  bish- 
ops, and  at  Constantinople  for  the  Patriarch  and  his  bishops. 

In  the  article  on  the  Greek  Ruthenian  Church,  I  have  de- 
scribed the  rites  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  they  are  substantially 
the  same  in  Italy  and  Sicily.  I  was  struck  by  the  fact  that  the 
Italian  singing  of  the  Greek  of  the  Mass  seemed  to  me  to  be 
finer  and  fuller  than  that  of  the  Greeks  of  Greece  and  Con- 
stantinople in  their  services.  I  was  told  that  the  Greeks  of  the 
East  have  never  sung  well  like  the  Russians  and  Italians,  be- 
cause they  were  so  long  under  Turkish  rule  and  feared  to  let 
their  voices  out  harmoniously  in  Christian  worship,  and  this 
continuing  for  centuries  had  produced  the  muffled  nasal  form 
of  singing  so  often  heard  in  the  Greek  churches  of  Greece  and 
Turkey.  One  can  easily  hear  it  in  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church 
of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  East  72nd  Street,  in  New  York  City, 


OUR  ITALIAN  GREEK  CATHOLICS  n? 

where  the  Greeks  maintain  a  beautiful  church,  with  a  priest 
from  Athens. 

The  Greek  Catholics  of  Italy  and  Sicily  differ  from  the 
Greek  Catholics  and  Greek  Orthodox  of  the  rest  of  the  world 
in  one  particular:  they  observe  the  Gregorian  calendar  and 
not  the  Julian  calendar/  so  that  their  immovable  and  Easter 
festivals,  which  coincide  with  the  Latin  ones,  fall  upon  the 
same  days  as  the  ones  in  the  Roman  calendar,  instead  of  being 
thirteen  days,  or  sometimes  more,  behind,  as  in  Austria,  Rus- 
sia, Greece  and  Turkey.  Of  course,  the  purely  Greek  feasts 
and  fasts  fall  as  provided  in  the  Greek  calendar,  but  as  ad- 
justed to  the  Gregorian  or  New  Style. 

The  Greek  Catholics  of  Italy  in  some  respects  are  more 
tenacious  of  purely  Greek  rites  than  those  of  Austria.  They 
say  that  it  is  their  national  rite  from  the  very  beginning,  and 
that  the  rite  must  be  altogether  Greek  or  altogether  Latin,  and 
that  there  should  be  no  mixing  of  the  two  rites.  Of  course, 
this  cannot  always  be  avoided.  Yet  Cardinal  Vannutelli  relates 
that  when  he  was  at  Cargese,  Corsica,  a  celebrated  mission 
preacher  came  to  hold  a  mission  there,  which  lasted  a  week  at 
the  Greek  church  and  a  week  at  the  Roman  church.  All  the 
inhabitants  who  could  come  attended  both  churches.  In  the 
Greek  church  all  the  hymns  were  sung  in  Italian,  because  the 
Roman  Catholics  knew  no  Greek,  and  the  next  week  the  com- 
pliment was  returned  in  the  Latin  church,  because  the  Greeks 
could  not  sing  Latin  hymns,  and  so  they  were  again  all  sung 
in  Italian. 

One  thing  the  Greeks  of  Southern  Italy  have  retained  from 
the  ancient  Church,  which  has  changed  everywhere  else,  and 
that  is  the  form  of  chief  vestment  of  the  Mass.  The  Greek 
vestments  used  in  Italy  and  Sicily  correspond  to  those  used  in 
the  Greek  Orthodox  Church,  and  consist  of  the  stichario  or 
alb ;  the  epitrachilio  or  stole,  which  joins  in  one  piece ;  the  zona 
or  girdle ;  the  epimanica  or  cuffs,  corresponding  to  the  maniple 
of  the  Roman  rite;  the  felonio  or  chasuble.  Originally  the 
vestments  of  the  Church,  both  Roman  and  Greek,  particularly 
the  chasuble,  were  the  same.  It  consisted  originally  of  the 
magnificent  senatorial  mantle  or  planeta,  the  finest  official  dress 
of  the  Romans.  Since  the  time  of  the  schism  of  the  East  and 
the  West,  both  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches  have  been  al- 

1  Constitutio  Benedict!  XI\^  "Etsi  pastoralis,"  June  i,   1742,   IX,  2-6. 


ii8  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

tering  and  cutting  away  this  vestment  until  it  has  lost  its  origi- 
nal form,  and  each  has  cut  it  in  a  different  way.  Undoubtedly 
it  hampered  the  arms ;  so  the  Roman  church  authorities  cut  it 
away  at  the  sides,  until  all  of  it  covering  the  arms  was  gone, 
and  so  produced  their  modern  chasuble,  while  the  Greeks  of 
the  East  and  of  Russia  cut  it  away  in  front,  until  only  a  small 
portion  was  left,  thus  making  the  Russo-Greek  chasuble  of 
to-day  totally  different  from  the  Roman  one.  But  in  Italy 
and  Sicily  the  ancient  form  has  been  preserved,  and  a  Greek 
Italian  priest,  when  vested,  has  a  flowing  chasuble,  or  felonio, 
which  comes  down  equally  on  all  sides,  just  as  it  did  in  the 
beginning. 

The  Greek  bishops,  however,  wear  other  and  different  Mass 
vestments  from  the  priests.  Instead  of  the  felonio,  they  wear 
the  sc£co,  a  sort  of  chasuble  with  sleeves,  which  was  origi- 
nally a  court  dress,  conferred  on  bishops  in  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantine's  time,  but  which  has  become  the  chief  episcopal  vest- 
ment. Over  this  is  the  omoforio,  or  pallium,  which  is  a  broad 
band,  knotted  in  front  with  one  end  thrown  over  the  shoulder. 
It  was  originally  a  scarf  of  wool.  On  the  right  side  is  the 
epigonazio,  or  thigh  shield.  This  is  a  curious  vestment  worn 
by  bishops  and  high  prelates.  It  dates  from  early  times,  when 
the  bishops  of  the  Eastern  Church  were  placed  on  a  rank  with 
princes  and  generals,  who  always  were  required  to  appear  in 
public  wearing  their  swords,  and  who  wore  a  piece  of  cloth  to 
prevent  their  swords  from  rubbing  their  vestments.  Being 
men  of  peace,  the  churchmen  contented  themselves  with  wear- 
ing only  the  piece  of  cloth,  usually  with  a  sword  embroidered 
on  it,  and  to  indicate  their  peaceful  mission  also  wore  it  on  the 
right  side.  It  was  a  symbol  that  they  must  guard  their  flock 
from  evil.  The  Greek  mitre  is  a  round  head-dress,  containing 
a  picture  or  embroidery  of  the  four  evangelists,  and  usually 
surmounted  by  a  cross.  The  present  Roman  mitre  was  derived 
from  the  habit  of  folding  this  head-dress,  or  cap — a  thing 
which  the  Greeks  did  not  do.  The  crozier  is  a  staff  with  two 
curving  serpents'  heads,  in  allusion  to  our  Saviour's  command, 
"Be  ye  wise  as  serpents."  ^ 

Their  sacred  vessels  consist  of  the  chalice,  the  patena,  the 
lance,  the  star,  and  the  spoon,  besides  certain  veils  and  corpo- 
rals not  used  in  the  Roman  rite. 

1  Matthew,   X,    16. 


OUR  ITALIAN  GREEK  CATHOLICS  119 

I  have  elsewhere  described  the  rites  of  the  Greek 
Church,  as  regards  the  Mass  and  the  sacraments.  The  Greeks 
of  Italy,  however,  follow  more  closely  the  ancient  liturgical 
forms  than  do  the  United  Greek  Ruthenians  or  Rumanians. 
They  even  are  allowed  to  say  the  creed  without  the  addition  of 
"and  from  the  Son,"  on  account  of  the  ancient  usage,  which 
they  have  never  altered,  and  because  they  have  never  differed 
from  the  Roman  pontiff. 

As  I  have  said,  the  people  of  Southern  Italy  have  immi- 
grated in  large  numbers  to  the  United  States.  The  census  re- 
turns for  Italy  in  1901  say  that  there  are  over  three  million 
Italians  outside  of  Italy,  who  have  left  their  homes  either  per- 
manently or  temporarily.  In  New  York  City  alone  there  are 
said  to  be  450,000  Italians.  The  Greek  Catholic  population  of 
Southern  Italy  has  sent  between  a  quarter  and  half  of  its  num- 
ber to  the  United  States.  There  are  in  the  United  States 
perhaps  as  many  Italian  Greek  Catholics  as  there  are  now  re- 
maining in  Italy. 

During  the  year  1904,  an  energetic  young  Italian  Greek 
Catholic  priest,  the  Papas  (Rev.)  Giro  Pinnola,  of  Mezzojuso, 
came  to  the  United  States  to  gather  up  the  scattered  flock  of 
Greek  Catholics.  He  is  now  a  priest  of  the  New  York  diocese. 
He  says  that,  being  used  to  the  language  and  rites  of  the  Greek 
Church,  these  Italians  have  not  adopted  the  habit  of  attending 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  which  in  a  measure  do  not  appeal 
to  them,  because  of  their  unfamiliarity  with  the  rites,  and  they 
have  become  the  prey  of  all  sorts  of  missionary  experiments 
to  undermine  their  allegiance  to  the  Church.  Father  Pinnola 
has  found  many  who,  because  they  were  not  of  the  Roman  rite, 
attended  other  churches  and  missionary  chapels.  They  were 
easier  to  pervert  than  the  ordinary  Italian  of  the  Roman  rite. 

He  estimates  that  there  are  about  25,000  Itahans  (Alba- 
nesi)  of  the  Greek  Rite,  or  possibly  more,  within  the  Greater 
City  of  New  York.  There  are,  besides,  a  large  number  in 
Newark,  Elizabeth  and  Jersey  City.  There  is  even  quite  a 
colony  out  on  Long  Island.  Father  Pinnola  has,  as  yet,  not 
travelled  far  afield,  but  has  confined  his  labors  to  New  York 
and  vicinity.  All  these  people  are  very  poor,  with  an  excep- 
tion here  and  there,  and  have  been  as  yet  unable  to  build  or 
equip  a  church.  They  are,  however,  contributing  their  dimes 
and  quarters  to  that  end. 


120  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Nevertheless,  they  have  found  means  to  print  and  publish 
in  New  York  a  tiny,  four-page  paper,  "L'Operaio,"  which  is 
devoted  to  their  interests  and  their  Greek  Rite.  They  have 
several  Albanese  Greek  Catholic  societies,  each  of  which  is 
said  to  have  a  good  membership.^ 

The  Italian  Greeks  frequently  attend  one  of  the  Italian 
churches  of  the  Roman  Rite,  to  celebrate  many  of  their  Greek 
festivals,  but  they  ardently  desire  to  have  a  church  of  their 
own.  They  also  attend  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  churches, 
but  here  their  unfamiliarity  with  the  Slavonic  tongue  is  a  bar. 
Some  of  them  even  have  had  their  baptisms  and  weddings 
celebrated  in  the  Greek  (Hellenic)  Church  of  the  Holy  Trin- 
ity, or  in  the  Russian  Cathedral  of  St.  Nicholas,  New  York 
City.  But  they  need  to  be  gathered  up  into  one  compact  body, 
where  they  may  practice  their  ancient  rites  and  where  their 
children  may  be  taught  the  faith  as  well  as  the  devotions  of 
their  ancestors. 

It  is  said  that  the  Italian  is  becoming  well-to-do  here  in 
America,  and  that  in  a  few  years  he  will  also  be  a  political 
force  to  be  reckoned  with.  To  be  a  good  citizen,  he  must  also 
be  a  good  man,  true  to  his  faith  and  his  country.  There  is  no 
better  method  of  bringing  these  wandering  sheep  of  our  great 
Catholic  fold  back  to  the  active  practice  of  their  faith  than  by 
placing  before  them  the  opportunity  to  enjoy  the  rites  and  wor- 
ship of  that  glorious  faith  according  to  the  Eastern  form,  which 
they  and  their  fathers  have  used  ever  since  the  days  of  the 
Apostles. 

1  The  chief  of  these  are:  Societa  San  Albanese,    Societa    San    Bartolomeo    Al- 

Giorgio,    Societa   Italo-Albanese,    Societa  banese,   Societa   San   Paolo,  and   Societa 

Uguaglianza,      Societa      San      Giuseppe,  Stella  Albanese,  all  of  Manhattan,  New 

Societa  Gabriella  Buccola,  Societa  Cuore  York, 
di  Gesu,  Societa  Civitese,  Societa  Sicula- 


CATHOLICS  OF  THE  EASTERN  RITES 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

THE  Catholic  Church,  with  its  expansion  in  every  land 
throughout  the  world  and  its  existence  since  the  days 
of  the  Apostles,  has  always  kept  the  faith  intact.  But 
in  doing  so  it  has  not  at  all  times  and  in  all  places  imposed  the 
same  form  of  worship  in  every  detail  upon  the  faithful,  nor 
insisted  upon  the  same  language  being  used.  This  variation  in 
form  and  language  constitutes  the  diversity  of  rite. 

In  the  beginning  this  could  hardly  have  been  otherwise. 
The  Apostles  and  their  disciples  scattered  to  various  lands, 
with  various  races  and  languages.  In  each  locality  the  Church 
grew  up  separately,  save  for  the  bond  of  union — the  same- 
ness and  identity  of  the  faith.  Difference  in  manner  of  wor- 
ship might  be  permitted,  but  no  divergence  in  matters  of 
faith  was  allowed. 

The  powerful,  the  civilized  and  cultivated  East,  with  its 
peculiar  variations  and  attempts  to  break  away  from  the  faith, 
elaborated  one  form  of  worship,  whilst  the  West,  uncivilized 
except  as  to  the  Italian  peninsula  and  Spain,  elaborated  an- 
other form  of  worship,  while  both  retained  the  same  faith. 

The  Eastern  and  Western  Church 

The  Catholic  Church  has  existed  in  many  lands  and  its  wor- 
ship has  found  many  forms  of  expression  throughout  the  ages 
since  the  times  of  the  Apostles.  The  two  principal  forms  of 
its  worship,  and  particularly  that  of  the  Mass  (or  the  Holy 
Liturgy,  as  it  is  called  in  the  Greek  Church),  have  been  the 
one  followed  in  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Church  and  the  one  in 
the  Western  or  Roman  Church.  The  former  was  celebrated  in 
the  Greek  language,  and  the  latter  has  always  been  celebrated 
in  the  Latin  tongue.  The  various  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the 
Mass,  the  usages  and  vestments  of  the  priests,  and  the  form  of 
the  altar  and  sanctuary  gradually  grew  to  be  quite  different  in 

121 


122  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

each  part  of  the  Church,  although  they  had  a  common  origin. 
Finally  in  the  year  1054  came  the  separation  of  the  two 
churches,  the  greater  part  of  the  Greek  Church  lapsing  into 
schism  or  opposition  to  the  unity  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
With  that  schism  came  also  some  later  differences  of  doctrine. 
Still  all  the  Greek  part  of  the  Church  did  not  leave  Catholic 
unity;  and  later  on  during  the  subsequent  centuries  and  par- 
ticularly in  1695-1700,  millions  of  separated  Greeks  returned 
to  the  unity  of  the  Church.  Thus  these  Greeks  who  never 
separated  from  unity  and  those  who  returned  to  it  represent 
to-day  the  Catholic  Church  of  the  East,  united  with  the  West, 
as  it  stood  before  the  great  schism.  To  express  this  idea  more 
clearly,  they  are  sometimes  called  Uniats,  for  while  Greek 
indicates  their  rite,  Catholic  expresses  their  faith.  They  are 
Catholics  in  faith  and  unity  with  their  brethren  throughout 
the  world,  and  are  subject  to  the  Vicar  of  Christ  as  the  Head 
of  the  Church  upon  earth,  but  they  still  follow  their  own  pecu- 
liar forms  of  worship,  rites  and  ceremonies,  just  as  they  used 
to  do  before  there  was  ever  any  thought  of  disruption  or  sepa- 
ration of  churches. 

Prior  to  the  year  1054  the  Catholic  Church  was  undivided 
throughout  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Roman  Empires.  In 
the  East  the  people  generally  followed  the  Greek  or  Constanti- 
nople form  of  saying  Mass  and  administering  all  the  sacra- 
ments, and  used  the  Greek  language  chiefly  in  the  Church 
services.  In  the  Western  part  of  Europe  they  followed  the 
Roman  form  and  used  the  Latin  language.  Political  and  theo- 
logical dissensions  ensued,  based  principally  upon  misunder- 
standings, and  in  1054  the  Church  of  Constantinople  was  ex- 
communicated for  disobedience  or  schism.  That  made  a  break 
between  the  Eastern  and  Western  parts  of  the  Church,  al- 
though the  Eastern  separated  Church  still  retained  all  the  es- 
sentials of  Christian  doctrine  and  belief  defined  up  to  that  date. 
Matters  only  grew  worse  with  the  lapse  of  time,  although 
reunion  took  place  twice  for  a  short  period  in  the  General 
Councils  of  Lyons  (1275)  and  Florence  (1438).  The  Greek 
Church,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  in  Italy,  remained  in 
schism;  the  differences  between  the  two  Churches  being  only 
on  two  or  three  points. 

The  principal  peoples  who  are  Catholics  using  the  Greek 
Rite  are: 


EASTERN  RITES  123 

1.  Ruthenians,  who  use  the  Greek  Rite  in  the  ancient 
Slavonic  language. 

2.  Melchites,  who  are  Syrians,  who  use  the  same  rite  in 
the  Arabic  language,  or  who  use  Arabic  or  Greek  inter- 
changeably. 

3.  Rumanians,  who  use  the  Greek  Rite  in  the  Rumanian 
language. 

4.  Greeks  of  Constantinople,  Syria,  Greece  and  lower  Italy 
and  Sicily,  who  use  the  Greek  Rite  in  the  original  Greek 
language. 

The  Slavonic  Liturgy 

The  Mass,  according  to  the  Greek  Rite,  was  originally  cele- 
brated in  the  ancient  Greek  language,  but  in  the  year  868  it 
was  translated  into  Slavonic  by  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius  for 
the  conversion  of  the  Bulgarians,  Ruthenians,  Moravians  and 
other  pagan  Slavic  tribes,  and  this  translation  was  approved 
by  Pope  John  VIII  at  Rome  in  879.  Afterwards  it  was  also 
translated  into  Arabic  and  into  Rumanian,  so  that  nowadays 
Greek  Catholics  celebrate  Mass  in  one  of  these  four  languages, 
in  the  various  countries  where  those  languages  represent  the 
ancient  tongue  of  the  people.  The  use  of  one  single  language, 
like  the  Latin  in  the  Roman  Rite,  has  never  been  the  practice 
among  the  Greek  Catholics  in  celebrating  Mass.  None  of 
these  things  have  been  interfered  with  by  the  Holy  See,  which 
has  always  permitted  ancient  rites  and  privileges  which  date 
back  to  the  time  when  the  Church  was  not  disturbed  by  schism 
or  separation. 

The  language  used  in  the  celebration  of  the  Mass  by  the 
Ruthenian  clergy  is  the  Ancient  Slavonic  (Church  Slavonic) 
of  St.  Cyril.  This  language  bears  about  the  same  relation  to 
the  ordinary  vernacular  of  the  people  that  the  language  of 
Chaucer  does  to  current  English.  The  people  can  understand 
it  with  some  difficulty  and  readily  sing  the  church  responses, 
but  it  is  very  quaint  and  archaic  to  them  and  numerous  words 
have  to  be  translated.  In  addition  to  this,  it  is  written  or 
printed  in  a  peculiar  church  alphabet  or  type  called  the 
Cyrillic. 

Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius  translated  all  the  Greek  service 
books  into  Slavonic  and  said  Mass  in  that  language.  This 
gave  offense  to  some  German  missionaries  of  the  Roman  rite, 
who  maintained  that  the  Mass  and  the  sacraments  should  be 
in  either  Latin  or  Greek,  or  in  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testa- 


124  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

ment,  and  not  in  the  uncouth,  barbaric  language  of  a  pagan 
tribe. 

In  the  year  867  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius  were  summoned 
to  Rome  by  Pope  Nicholas  I  in  this  matter,  and,  arriving 
there  after  his  death,  were  warmly  received  by  his  successor, 
Pope  Adrian  II,  to  whom  they  gave  a  full  account  of  their 
missionary  work.  In  869  St.  Cyril  died  in  Rome,  and  was 
buried  in  the  Church  of  St.  Clement,  where  there  is  now  a 
splendid  chapel  to  his  memory.  St.  Methodius  was  sent  back 
to  the  Slavonic  tribes,  and  the  Pope  made  him  Archbishop  of 
Pannonia,  or  Eastern  Austria. 

Again  in  879  complaints  were  made  against  St.  Methodius 
on  account  of  the  use  of  the  Slavonic  language  in  the  Mass, 
and  he  was  again  summoned  to  Rome  by  Pope  John  VIII, 
but  he  gave  so  good  an  account  of  his  missionary  efforts  and 
his  success  in  converting  the  people  through  the  services  in 
the  Slavonic  language,  that  the  Pope  said :  "We  rightly  extol 
the  Slavonic  letters  invented  by  Cyril,  in  which  praises  to 
God  are  set  forth,  and  we  order  that  the  glories  and  deeds  of 
Christ  our  Lord  be  told  in  that  same  language.  Nor  is  it  in 
anywise  opposed  to  wholesome  doctrine  and  faith  to  say  Mass 
in  that  same  Slavonic  language,  or  to  chant  the  holy  gospels 
or  divine  lessons  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  duly 
translated  and  interpreted  therein,  or  other  parts  of  the  divine 
offices;  for  he  who  created  the  three  principal  languages, 
Hebrew,  Greek  and  Latin,  also  made  the  others  for  His  praise 
and  glory." 

Thus  the  Slavonic  language  became  one  of  the  liturgical 
languages  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
Slavonic  tribes  went  on  with  great  success.  The  offices  and 
liturgy  of  the  Greek  rite  so  translated  into  Slavonic  have  re- 
mained substantially  the  same  down  to  the  present  day,  and 
are  used  practically  in  the  same  form  as  Sts.  Cyril  and  Me- 
thodius left  them  in  the  ninth  century.  All  the  church  books 
in  Russia,  Bulgaria,  Servia  and  in  Austria-Hungary  (whether 
in  the  Greek  Catholic  or  the  Greek  Orthodox  churches)  are 
printed  in  the  Old  Cyrillic  alphabet  and  in  the  Old  Slavonic 
tongue.  The  translation  is  accurate  and  follows  the  Greek 
almost  word  for  word.  As  has  just  been  said,  the  Greek 
Church  did  not  sever  its  relations  with  Rome  until  1054 — 
nearly   190  years  after   Sts.   Cyril  and   Methodius — and   the 


EASTERN  RITES  125 

Slavonic  Church  did  not  follow  it  until  nearly  200  years  later, 
so  that  there  was  one  united  Catholic  Church  using  the  Cyril- 
lic alphabet  and  the  Slavonic  language  for  almost  400  years 
after  the  conversion  of  these  Slavs  to  Christianity. 

But  the  Church  using  the  Slavonic  language  in  its  Mass  and 
religious  services  gradually  followed  Constantinople  in  its 
schism  and  so  fell  away  from  unity  with  the  Holy  See.  The 
many  wars  with  the  Poles  and  the  Teutonic  Knights  of  Ger- 
many, both  of  whom  were  of  the  Roman  Rite,  helped  to  ac- 
centuate the  differences  of  the  two  rites,  and  made  the  Slavic- 
speaking  peoples  of  the  Greek  Rite  dislike  everything  that  was 
Roman  or  Latin. 


Their  Return  to  Unity 

From  1438  to  1442  the  Council  of  Florence  was  held  for 
the  reunion  of  Christendom.  It  was  attended  by  many  Greek 
prelates,  among  them  six  Russians.  Isidore,  Metropolitan 
(Archbishop),  first  of  Kieff  and  then  of  Moscow,  with  many 
others,  voted  for  the  union  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches,  and  it  was  accepted  by  several  bishops  of  southern 
Rus.  In  the  north  the  Russian  bishops  subject  to  Moscow 
would  have  none  of  it,  and  even  expelled  Isidore  when  he  re- 
turned to  Moscow.  In  Kieff  the  new  metropolitan,  Michael 
Rahosa,  united  his  whole  southern  province  with  Rome,  and 
Kieff  remained  until  163 1  with  the  Greek  Rite  in  full  com- 
munion with  Rome.  In  the  latter  year  a  newly-elected  metro- 
politan, Peter  Mogila,  broke  away  from  unity  and  turned  to 
Constantinople  and  Moscow  with  his  people. 

But  in  the  Ruthenian  portion  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland 
the  Greek  Orthodox  bishops  and  people  found  themselves  neg- 
lected, because  the  Turks  had  taken  Constantinople  and  fhe 
Moslems  threatened  all  Europe.  Besides,  Protestantism  was 
making  inroads  upon  the  Greek  churches.  The  effect  of  the 
Council  of  Florence  had  not  died  out.  Moreover,  the  Jesuit 
fathers,  then  newly  established  in  Poland,  set  themselves  ear- 
nestly to  effect  a  reunion  of  the  two  churches.  In  1595  the 
Greek  Ruthenian  bishops  of  Lithuania  and  Little  Russia  de- 
termined to  return  to  unity  with  the  Holy  See,  and  in  that 
year  held  a  council  at  Brest-Litovsk,  where  a  decree  of  union 


126  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

was  passed.  Two  Greek  bishops,  Ignatius  Potzcy  and  Cyril 
Terletzky,  were  sent  to  Rome  to  make  their  submission  to  the 
Holy  See.  They  declared  that  they  desired  to  return  to  the 
unity  of  the  Catholic  Church  as  it  existed  before  the  schism 
of  Constantinople  in  1054. 

The  Pope  accepted  their  return  to  unity,  and  no  change  in 
their  Greek  Rites  was  required — not  even  a  change  in  their 
calendar  (the  Old  Style),  which  was  then  ten  days  and  is  now 
thirteen  days  behind  the  New  Style  or  Gregorian  calendar. 
The  whole  of  the  ancient  Greek  Catholic  liturgy,  service  and 
discipline — including  the  ordination  of  married  men  as  priests 
— was  approved  by  Pope  Clement  VIII  in  the  Bull  "Magnus 
Dominus,"  December  22,  1595,  and  was  repeated  in  his  Brief 
"Benedictus  Sit  Pastor,"  of  February  7,  1596,  addressed  to  the 
Ruthenian  bishops  and  people. 

On  the  6th  day  of  October,  1596,  the  union  between  the 
Eastern  (Greek)  Church  and  the  Western  (Roman)  Church 
was  formally  proclaimed  and  ratified  throughout  all  the  Ru- 
thenian and  Russian-speaking  part  of  Poland.  A  large  num- 
ber of  the  Greek  bishops  and  their  priests  and  people  immedi- 
ately went  over  to  union  with  Rome.  Besides  the  bishops  who 
were  present  at  the  Council  of  Brest-Litovzk,  the  Bishop  of 
Kholm  in  1597,  the  succeeding  bishops  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  Kieff  during  the  following  twenty-five  years,  the  Bishop  of 
Munkach  in  1646,  the  Bishop  of  Przemysl  in  1691,  the  Metro- 
politan of  Lemberg  in  1700,  and  their  flocks,  became  obedient 
to  the  Holy  See,  and  the  majority  of  all  that  vast  reunion  has 
remained  steadfast  ever  since. 

It  numbers  now  in  Austria-Hungary  some  4,000,000  people 
and  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  seven  Greek-Catholic  bishops. 
In  Austria  the  dioceses  are :  Archdiocese  of  Lemberg,  and 
the  Dioceses  of  Przemysl  and  Stanislau,  all  in  Galicia,  and 
Kreutz  (Crisium)  in  Croatia.  In  Hungary  the  dioceses  are: 
Munkach,  Eperies  and  Hajdu-Dorogh,  all  in  the  north,  near 
the  Carpathian  mountains.  They  have  now  a  flourishing  press 
and  fine  churches,  seminaries  and  institutions,  despite  their 
poverty  and  the  fact  that  the  Ruthenian  nobility  long  ago  gave 
up  its  nationality  and  rite  and  became  Polish.  They  also  have 
a  Ruthenian  Greek-Catholic  college  in  Rome,  on  the  Piazza 
dei  Monti,  where  many  students  are  educated  for  the  Greek 
priesthood  among  the  Ruthenians. 


EASTERN  RITES  127 


RuTHENiAN  Immigration  to  America 

The  Ruthenians  are  now  firmly  established  in  America.  In 
the  United  States  they  number  over  half  a  million,  and  in 
Canada  there  are  some  two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand. 
Every  steamer  brings  more  of  them,  and  as  they  have  raised 
large  families,  the  native  born  of  Ruthenian  parentage  in- 
crease steadily.  As  they  are  hard-working  and  eager  to  get 
on  and  being  steadily  Americanized,  it  is  our  duty  to  co-oper- 
ate with  them,  to  understand  their  Greek  rite  and  forms  of 
worship,  their  history  and  the  ties  which  unite  them  with  the 
old  country  from  which  they  came. 

Ruthenian  immigration  began  about  1880,  chiefly  to  Penn- 
sylvania. As  they  increased  in  numbers  they  brought  their 
church  here,  too.  In  1884  Father  Ivan  Volanski,  the  first  Ru- 
thenian Greek-Catholic  priest  in  America,  came  from  Galicia 
to  Shenandoah,  Pennsylvania.  In  the  following  year  he  built 
the  first  uniat  Greek-Catholic  church  there.  Two  years  later 
another  church  was  built  at  Hazletown,  Pa.,  and  the  year  fol- 
lowing two  more  at  Kingston  and  Olyphant,  Pa.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  (1889)  two  more  were  established  at  Jersey  City 
and  Minneapolis.  The  priests  who  immediately  followed 
Father  Volanski  were  Revs.  Zeno  Lachovich,  Constantine  An- 
drukovich,  Theophan  Obuskevich.  Since  then  the  Ruthenian 
clergy  have  come  in  greater  numbers,  and  the  building  of 
churches  and  schools  has  gone  on  with  increasing  success. 
Many  very  fine  churches  have  been  built  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
many  churches  have  been  purchased  from  Protestant  denomi- 
nations and  turned  into  Catholic  churches. 

Owing  to  the  large  cost  of  real  estate  in  New  York  City 
the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  were  late  in  establishing  a 
church  here.  But  in  1905  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic 
Church  of  St.  George  (originally  on  20th  Street,  but  now  on 
7th  Street,  near  Cooper  Union)  was  first  organized  and  made 
such  progress  that  they  purchased  a  larger  building  from  the 
Methodists.  In  191 2  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  Church 
of  St.  Mary's  was  also  organized.  In  Yonkers  there  are  two 
Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  churches,  St.  Nicholas  of  Myra 
and  St.  Michael  the  Archangel.  In  Peekskill  there  is  a  Ru- 
thenian Greek  Catholic  missionary  chapel.    There  are  also  the 


128  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  churches  of  St.  Nicholas,  at  Troy; 
St.  Nicholas,  at  Watervliet,  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  at  Cohoes. 

There  are  now  about  165  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic 
churches  in  the  United  States  and  some  40  more  in  Canada, 
as  well  as  numerous  missionary  stations  in  both  countries. 
The  Greek  Catholic  clergy  here  number  156  priests  and  one 
bishop,  and  in  Canada  one  bishop  and  52  priests.  The  Ameri- 
can-Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  bishop  is  the  Right  Rev.  Soter 
Ortynski  ^  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  appointed  by  the  Pope  in 
1907,  and  the  Canadian  bishop  is  the  Right  Rev.  Nicetas 
Budka,  of  Winnipeg,  Manitoba,  appointed  by  the  Pope  in 
1 91 2.  A  full  account  of  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  will 
be  found  in  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  volume  VI,  under 
"Greek  Catholics  in  America."  and  in  volume  XIII,  "Ru- 
thenians."  Their  numbers  have  increased  since  that  was 
written,  and  they  are  making  as  rapid  strides  in  progress,  edu- 
cation and  wealth  in  America  as  any  other  nationality  coming 
here  under  the  same  conditions. 

They  come  of  a  race  which  is  alien,  or  rather  unknown  to 
us,  in  rite,  in  language  and  in  history.  They  were  very  poor, 
since  their  fate,  in  being  under  the  rule  of  other  races — the 
Poles  and  the  Hungarians — was  singularly  like  that  of  Ire- 
land, and  like  the  men  and  women  of  the  Irish  race  they  have 
kept  alive  their  nationality  and  their  Eastern  Rite,  and  above 
all  they  have  kept  up  their  language  and  their  Slavic  traditions. 

Being  of  the  Greek  Rite,  they  have  been  misunderstood  and 
neglected  even  by  the  American  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite. 
This  has  left  them  in  some  cases  a  prey  to  the  proselyter,  who 
has  installed  sectarian  services  and  under  the  guise  of  priest, 
altar  and  missal  leads  them  alike  from  their  rite  and  their 
Catholic  faith.  Two  or  three  of  these  attempts  have  been  suc- 
cessfully checked.  The  Greek  Orthodox  Church  of  Russia 
has  also  endeavored  here  in  America  to  win  them  away  from 
Catholicism,  and  in  many  cases  has  succeeded. 

It  behooves  all  Catholics  to  help  their  brethren,  even  if  their 
venerable,  historic  Eastern  Rite  be  strange  and  almost  unknown 
to  them.  Remember  that  their  Greek  Catholic  Rite  is  the  rite 
of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  St.  Basil,  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen. 
St.  John  Damascene  and  St.  Cyril,  and  that  sixteen  of  the 
Popes  were  of  this  Eastern  Rite.    Among  the  Popes  since  the 

1  Died   March   26,    19 16. 


EASTERN  RITES  129 

Council  of  Florence,  Clement  VIII,  Benedict  XIV,  Pius  IX, 
and  Leo  XIII,  have  done  special  and  signal  acts  in  regard 
to  the  Greek  Rite,  and  the  Encyclical  of  Leo  XIII,  "Dignitas 
Orientalium,"  deserves  especially  to  be  remembered.  Pope 
Pius  X  is  to  be  remembered  likewise  for  his  magnificent  (15th) 
centenary  celebration  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  held  at  the  Vati- 
can in  1908,  when  Pontifical  Greek  Mass  was  celebrated  there, 
for  the  first  time  since  the  Council  of  Florence,  by  the  Patri- 
arch of  Antioch,  in  the  presence  of  twenty-six  Greek  Catholic 
bishops  and  numerous  Greek  clergy  from  all  parts  of  the  Ori- 
ental Catholic  world  and  a  host  of  Roman  prelates  and  clergy. 
Piux  X  appointed  two  Greek  Catholic  bishops  for  America. 

Besides  the  Ruthenians  there  are  also  the  Melchites  or 
Syrians  speaking  the  Arabic  language,  who  follow  the  Greek 
Rite  and  are  Catholics  in  communion  with  Rome.  They  be- 
gan coming  here  in  1886,  and  are  now  spread  throughout  the 
country.  Their  name  comes  from  Melek,  the  King,  back  in 
Arian  times,  when  Catholics  were  followers  of  the  Emperor 
of  Constantinople,  as  against  the  Arians  who  were  not,  and 
even  remained  Catholics  when  Constantinople  left  unity. 
When  Cyril  V,  who  was  elected  Patriarch  of  Antioch  in  1700, 
left  the  schism  and  submitted  to  unity,  they  obtained  a  re- 
stored line  of  Catholic  hierarchy.  They  have  about  fifteen 
churches  and  sixteen  clergy  in  this  country.  Their  church 
books  are  printed  in  Arabic  and  Greek  in  parallel  columns  and 
a  priest  may  say  Mass  either  in  Greek  or  Arabic.  There  are 
probably  about  15,000  of  them  here. 

The  Rumanians  are  chiefly  the  inhabitants  of  Transylvania 
in  Hungary.  The  Rumanians  of  Rumania  mostly  belong  to 
the  Orthodox  Greek  Church.  Until  1878,  Rumania  was  a 
Turkish  province,  whilst  Transylvania  has  been  an  enlight- 
ened state  in  Hungary  for  the  past  two  hundred  years.  They 
say  the  Greek  Mass  in  the  Rumanian  language,  which  is  a 
Latin  tongue,  and  their  church  books  are  printed  in  Roman 
letters.    Their  unity  with  the  Holy  See  dates  back  to  1700. 

The  Italian  Greek  Catholics  boast  that  they  have  never 
been  in  schism.  They  come  from  the  lower  part  of  Italy, 
which  was  once  known  as  Magna  Grsecia,  where  the  Greek 
language  was  spoken.  They  hold  the  tradition  that  they  were 
converted  by  St.  Paul.  Their  church  language  is,  of  course, 
the  ancient  Greek,  in  which  all  their  church  books  are  printed. 


130  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 


The  Greek  Catholic  Church  and  Rites 

The  language,  liturgy  and  ceremonies  of  the  Greek  Church 
are  substantially  the  same,  whether  the  persons  using  them 
are  Catholic  or  schismatic.  Such  changes  in  the  public  pray- 
ers for  the  church  authorities  as  will  indicate  whether  they 
are  in  unity  and  harmony  with  the  Holy  See  at  Rome  are 
made,  but  in  general,  the  same  service  books  can  be  used  for 
all  the  principal  parts  of  the  Mass  alike  in  the  Greek  Catholic 
or  in  the  separated  Greek  Churches.  There  are  some  differ- 
ences of  faith,  however,  nowadays,  between  the  Catholic  and 
separated  Churches. 

The  form  of  the  Greek  altar  and  sanctuary,  and  even  of 
the  entire  church,  is  different  from  the  Roman  or  Western 
ones.  The  Ruthenian  and  Russian  churches  are  fond  of  a 
peculiar  cross,  known  as  the  Slavonic  cross,  which  consists 
of  the  usual  cross  with  the  head-board  and  the  foot-piece 
added  to  it.  Usually  the  foot-piece  is  expressed  by  being 
placed  slanting  across  "the  upright  stem.  This  form  of  cross 
is  used  outside  of  the  churches,  and  on  the  outside  of  prayer- 
books,  etc.,  and  is  not  used  in  the  Greek  churches  of  other  na- 
tions. The  Ruthenian  or  Russian  churches  are  usually  sur- 
mounted by  bulbous  domes  of  Byzantine-Slavic  origin,  which 
have  a  mystical  significance.  Where  one  central  dome  alone 
is  used,  it  represents  Our  Lord ;  where  three  are  used,  it  is 
either  the  Trinity,  if  they  are  of  equal  size,  or  Our  Lord 
and  the  Old  and  New  Law,  if  two  of  them  are  smaller;  and 
where  there  are  five  domes  on  the  church,  it  represents  Our 
Lord  surrounded  by  the  four  Evangelists. 

The  altar  is  usually  nearly  square  in  form  and  is  arranged 
so  that  the  clergy  may  pass  entirely  around  it.  On  the  north 
or  "gospel"  side  of  the  altar  (usually  against  the  wall),  is  a 
smaller  altar  or  table  of  oblation,  on  which  the  Proskomide 
or  first  part  of  the  Mass  is  said.  The  sanctuary  is  divided 
from  the  rest  of  the  church  by  the  Iconostas  (Greek,  ikonos- 
tasis)  or  picture-screen,  which  has  three  doors  in  it.  The 
icons,  or  church  pictures,  which  must  be  in  every  church,  are 
Our  Lord  on  the  right-hand  (or  epistle)  side,  and  Our  Lady 
on  the  left-hand  (or  gospel)  side.  Other  pictures  may  be  and 
usually  are  added  to  beautify  the  iconostas.    This  is  simply  the 


EASTERN  RITES  131 

chancel  rail  of  the  Roman  church  raised  up  to  a  great  height 
and  adorned  with  pictures.  In  America,  the  Greek  CathoHcs 
have  not  always  been  able  to  supply  their  churches  with  the 
iconostas  as  soon  as  they  are  opened  for  worship,  but  add  it 
later  when  they  become  wealthier. 

The  vestments  of  the  Greek  clergy  were  once  the  same  as 
the  Roman  ones,  but  now  look  quite  different.  The  Roman 
vestments  have  been  clipped  or  changed  for  convenience  in 
one  place,  whilst  the  Greek  vestments  have  been  changed  in 
another,  thus  making  a  curious  case  of  parallel  evolution. 
The  bishop  wears  over  his  cassock  the  stikhar  or  alb ;  then  the 
epitrakhil  or  priestly  stole,  which  is  joined  together  in  one 
piece ;  then  the  poyas  or  girdle,  which  is  a  band  or  belt.  On 
both  wrists  he  wears  the  narukzdtsy  or  cuffs,  which  answer  to 
the  Roman  maniple.  At  his  side  he  often  wears  the  nebedren- 
nik,  a  diamond-shaped  vestment,  peculiar  to  Greek  bishops, 
but  sometimes  omitted.  Lastly,  he  wears  as  the  principal 
vestment  the  sakkos,  a  vestment  somewhat  like  a  dalmatic, 
but  which  answers  to  the  chasuble.  Over  this  comes  the  omo- 
phor  or  pallium,  which  is  indicative  of  the  bishop's  office  and 
powers.  For  the  purpose  of  giving  the  solemn  episcopal  bless- 
ing he  uses  two  sets  of  candles,  the  trikir,  consisting  of  three 
candles  (representing  the  Trinity)  in  his  right  hand,  and  the 
dikir,  consisting  of  two  candles  (representing  the  divine  and 
human  natures  of  Our  Lord)  in  his  left  hand.  His  episcopal 
staff  ends  in  two  entwined  serpents  between  which  there  is  a 
cross,  while  his  mitre  is  in  the  shape  of  a  crown  surmounted 
by  a  small  cross. 

The  priest  is  vested  in  the  napleshchnik  (amice),  the  stikhar 
(alb),  the  epitrakhil  (priestly  stole),  the  poyas  (girdle),  and 
narukvitsy  (cuffs),  and  over  them  the  phelon  or  chasuble. 
This  Greek  chasuble  is  long  and  flowing  at  the  sides  and  back, 
but  has  been  almost  entirely  cut  away  in  front.  The  Roman 
chasuble  has  also  been  cut  away  at  the  sides,  for  the  same 
reason  of  convenience,  and  neither  form  of  chasuble  to-day 
quite  represents  the  flowing  vestment  of  the  earlier  ages.  The 
deacon  is  vested  in  stikhar  (alb)  and  narukvitsy  (cuffs),  and 
wears  the  orar  (or  deacon's  stole),  a  plain  band  with  "Agios" 
on  it,  outside  of  the  alb  pinned  to  the  left  shoulder.  The  dea- 
con, between  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Communion,  winds 
his  stole  in  a  cross-like  shape  around  his  body. 


132  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

The  sacred  utensils  of  the  Mass  are  greater  in  number  than 
in  the  Roman  Rite.  The  Greek  Rite  uses  the  Diskos  or  paten, 
the  potir  or  chaHce,  the  Asterisk  {Svyezd)  or  star,  the  Kopie 
or  lance,  and  the  Loshitsa  or  spoon.  The  Greek  host  is  called 
the  Agnetz  or  Lamb,  and  is  square  in  shape,  and  is  cut  from 
round  pieces  (Prosphora)  of  leavened  bread.  Several  smaller 
portions  of  the  prosphora  are  also  used  for  consecration  along 
with  the  large  square  Agnetz.  Communion  is  given  in  the 
Greek  Rite  in  both  kinds,  with  the  spoon. 

The  sign  of  the  cross  is  made  from  right  to  left  by  the 
Greek  Catholics,  who  hold  the  thumb  and  two  fingers  together 
(symbolizing  the  Trinity)  in  making  it.  Instrumental  music, 
such  as  organs,  is  not  used,  and  the  choirs  sing  without  ac- 
companiment. The  people  generally  know  the  responses  of 
the  liturgy  by  heart  and  often  sing  them  without  the  choir. 

The  Italo-Greeks  on  the  East  Side  in  New  York  City  know 
all  these  changeable  and  unchangeable  parts  of  the  Mass  by 
heart,  although  Greek  is  a  stranger  language  to  them  than 
Latin  is  to  us.  Many  of  the  men  who  work  on  the  streets 
and  girls  who  work  in  clothing  factories  are  capable  of  sing- 
ing all  the  parts  of  the  Mass. 


The  Greek  Mass 

The  Mass,  according  to  the  Greek  Rite,  is  divided  into  three 
parts :  I.  The  Proskomide,  or  preparation,  which  is  all  said 
secretly  at  the  little  side  altar,  called  the  Zhertvennik  or 
table  of  Oblation.  II.  The  Liturgy  of  the  Catechumens,  which 
consists  of  the  Ektenes  (or  litanies),  the  Antiphons,  the  Lit- 
tle Entrance,  the  Apostle  (Epistle),  the  Gospel  and  the  pray- 
ers for  the  Catechumens.  III.  The  Liturgy  of  the  Faithful, 
which  begins  just  before  the  Great  Entrance,  includes  the 
Creed,  the  Preface,  the  Consecration,  Our  Father,  Communion 
and  the  Dismissal  of  the  Mass.  These  divisions  refer  to  the 
ancient  discipline  of  the  Church ;  parts  II  and  III  are  said 
aloud  and  really  constitute  the  Mass  which  a  visitor  to  a 
Greek  church  usually  sees. 

Besides  this,  the  Greeks  have  three  forms  of  Mass  which 
are  said  at  different  times  throughout  the  year.  They  are : 
I.  The  Mass  of  Saint  John  Chrysostom,  which  is  the  normal 


EASTERN  RITES  I33 

or  ordinary  form  of  the  Mass.  II.  The  Mass  of  Saint  Basil 
the  Great,  which  is  said  some  fourteen  times  a  year,  princi- 
pally on  New  Year's  day,  St.  Basil's  day,  all  through  Lent  and 
a  few  other  feast  days.  III.  The  Mass  of  the  Presanctified, 
which  is  ascribed  in  their  missals  to  Saint  Gregory,  Pope  of 
Rome.  This  Mass  is  said  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  through- 
out Lent,  instead  of  merely  on  Good  Friday,  as  with  us. 

In  the  Greek  Mass,  a  great  deal  more  is  said  aloud  than  is 
the  case  in  the  Roman  Mass.  The  consecration  is  said  aloud, 
and  the  priest  is  answered  by  the  people.  Communion  is 
given  in  both  kinds.  The  priest  mixes  the  bread  and  wine  in 
the  chalice,  and  a  tiny  particle  is  given  by  means  of  a  spoon 
directly  to  the  people.  The  Greeks  use  leavened  bread,  not 
unleavened  bread,  as  the  Roman  Rite  requires,  for  consecra- 
tion in  the  Mass. 

Another  peculiarity  in  the  Greek  Catholic  Church  is  the 
married  priesthood.  With  a  view  of  not  making  any  radical 
distinction  to  the  Catholic  priesthood  in  the  United  States, 
the  Pope  has  directed  that  only  celibate  or  widowed  priests 
should  come  to  America  to  take  charge  of  churches.  But 
remember  that  the  rule  in  the  Greek  Church  is  the  same  as 
the  rule  in  the  Roman  Church;  no  priest  may  marry.  The 
Greek  rite,  according  to  the  custom  from  antiquity,  will  ordain 
married  men  to  the  diaconate  and  priesthood,  while  the  Ro- 
man rite  has  ceased  to  do  so.  The  Catholic  Church,  therefore, 
is  the  only  Church  which  can  fairly  say  that  it  knows  the 
advantages  of  an  unmarried  priesthood,  because  it  has  them 
both,  according  to  the  respective  rites. 


The  Greek  Calendar 

Among  the  customs  and  privileges  which  the  Greeks  have 
retained  is  that  of  the  ancient  calendar.  The  new  calendar 
introduced  by  Pope  Gregory  was  never  made  obligatory  on 
them.  They,  therefore,  keep  the  calendar  according  to  the 
Old  Style,  which  is  now  about  thirteen  days  behind  the  new 
or  everyday  one,  and  which  will  continue  to  drop  one  day 
behind  every  century.  Consequently  all  the  feast  days  fall 
much  later  than  in  the  Roman  Rite.  Thus,  for  example, 
Christmas    (December  25th)    falls   upon  January  7th,   New 


134  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Style,  and  so  on  throughout  the  year.  Easter  is  quite  difficult 
to  reconcile  with  the  same  feast  in  the  Roman  Rite.  This  year 
(191 5)  it  fell  upon  the  same  date,  and  both  the  Roman  and 
Greek  celebrations  coincided.  Next  year  it  will  be  a  week 
later,  and  some  years  the  feast  in  the  different  rites  can  be 
as  much  as  a  month  apart.  Being  reckoned  from  the  first  full 
moon  of  spring,  the  difference  of  thirteen  days  in  reckoning 
when  March  21st  comes,  throws  the  two  rites  far  apart. 

The  Greek  year  is  reckoned  quite  differently  in  its  starting 
point.  For  immovable  feasts  the  Greeks  count  by  the  old 
Roman  year,  starting  at  September  i.  For  movable  feasts, 
they  start  with  Easter.  The  Roman  Church,  on  the  contrary, 
starts  with  Advent,  about  December  i,  and  makes  everything 
else  come  into  line.  Many  saint's  days  come  on  different  dates 
in  the  Greek  calendar  (leaving  out  the  fact  of  being  thirteen 
days  behind).  Thus  the  Immaculate  Conception  falls  in  the 
Greek  calendar  on  December  9th,  and  not  December  8th.  All 
Saints  is  celebrated  on  what  we  call  Trinity  Sunday;  while 
the  celebration  in  honor  of  the  Trinity  comes  on  Monday  after 
Pentecost.  There  is  no  All  Souls'  day  in  the  Greek  Rite ;  they 
have  four  Saturdays  in  the  year  in  which  they  offer  Mass  for 
the  dead.  It  would  take  too  long  to  detail  all  the  differences 
in  the  calendar  alone. 


Other  Eastern  Rites 

Besides  the  Greek  Catholics,  there  are  other  Eastern  Rites, 
united  with  the  Holy  See,  here  in  the  United  States.  They 
are  not  as  numerous  as  the  Greeks,  who  all  together  make  over 
8oo,o(X)  persons  who  are  united  with  the  Holy  See,  to  say 
nothing  of  half  as  many  more  who  belong  to  the  so-called 
Orthodox  or  schismatic  Church. 

Among  these  others  are  the  Maronites,  who  use  the  ancient 
Syriac  in  the  Mass,  and  who  are  proud  to  boast  that  they  still 
use  the  very  language  which  Our  Lord  spoke  whilst  He  was 
on  earth.  They  are  Syrians,  mainly  from  Mount  Lebanon, 
who  have  retained  their  Mass  and  liturgy.  They  speak  Arabic 
as  their  ordinary  tongue,  but  use  the  Syriac  upon  the  altar; 
but  they  are  all   Catholics. 

Then,  too,  there  are  the  Armenians,  who  use  the  ancient 


EASTERN  RirES  i35 

Armenian  in  the  Mass.  The  Armenian  CathoHc  Church  is 
pecuHar,  in  that  it  is  a  Church  of  only  one  people,  the  Arme- 
nians. No  one  who  is  not  an  Armenian  belongs  to  it,  and  only 
Armenians  are  ordained  to  the  priesthood.  They  have  their 
missals  and  church  books  in  Armenian,  but  there  are  also 
the  disunited  or  Gregorian  Armenians,  who  do  not  belong  to 
the  Catholic  Church. 

Besides  these,  there  are  a  few  small  communities  of  Chal- 
deans, from  eastern  Turkey  in  Asia  and  from  Persia.  They 
also  use  the  ancient  Syriac  in  the  Mass,  but  in  a  varied  form 
from  the  Maronites. 

These  are  the  Catholics  of  the  Eastern  rites  in  the  United 
States,  who  have  come  hither  to  make  up  part  and  parcel  of 
the  Catholic  Church  in  America.  It  behooves  us  to  know 
something  about  them,  to  welcome  them,  and  to  see  that  they 
do  not  stray  from  the  faith. 


MOSCOW 

THE  ancient  capital  of  Russia  and  the  chief  city  of  the 
government  (province)  of  Moscow  is  situated  in  almost 
the  centre  of  European  Russia.  It  lies  on  both  sides 
of  the  River  Moskva,  from  which  it  derives  its  name;  another 
small  stream,  called  the  Yauza,  flows  through  the  eastern  part 
of  the  city.  Moscow  was  the  fourth  capital  of  Russia — the 
earlier  ones  being  Novgorod,  Kiefif,  and  Vladimir — and  was 
the  residence  of  the  Tsars  from  1340  until  the  time  of  Peter 
the  Great  in  171 1.  It  is  the  holy  city  of  Russia,  almost  sur- 
passing in  that  respect  the  city  of  Kiefif,  and  is  celebrated  in 
song  and  story  under  its  poetic  name  Bielokamennaya,  the 
"White-Walled."  The  population,  according  to  the  latest 
(1907)  available  statistics,  is  1,335,104,  and  it  is  the  greatest 
commercial  and  industrial  city  of  Russia.  It  is  the  see  of  a 
Russian  Orthodox  metropolitan  with  three  auxiliary  or  vicar 
bishops,  and  has  440  churches,  24  convents,  over  500  schools 
(with  high  schools,  professional  schools,  and  the  university 
besides),  some  502  establishments  of  charity,  mercy,  and  hos- 
pital service,  and  23  cemeteries.  The  population  is  composed 
of  1,242,090  Orthodox,  26,320  Old  Ritualists,  25,540  Catholics, 
26,650  Protestants,  8,905  Jews,  and  5,336  Mohammedans,  to- 
gether with  a  small  scattering  of  other  denominations. 

Historically,  the  city  of  Moscow,  which  has  grown  up  grad- 
ually around  the  Kremlin,  is  divided  into  five  principal  parts 
or  concentric  divisions,  separated  from  one  another  by  walls, 
some  of  which  have  already  disappeared  and  their  places  been 
taken  by  broad  boulevards.  These  chief  divisions  are  the 
Kremlin,  Kitaigorod  (Chinese  town),  Bielygorod  (white 
town),  Zemlianoigorod  (earthwork  town),  and  Miestchansky- 
gorod  (the  bourgeois  town).  The  actual  municipal  division 
of  the  city  is  into  seventeen  chasti  or  wards,  each  of  which 
has  a  set  of  local  officials  and  separate  police  sections.  The 
city  hall  or  Duma  is  situated  on  Ascension  Square  near  the 
Kremlin.    The  Kremlin  itself  is  a  walled  acropolis  and  is  the 

136 


MOSCOW  137 

most  ancient  part  of  Moscow,  the  place  where  the  city  origi- 
nated ;  it  is  situated  in  the  very  center  of  the  present  city,  some 
140  feet  above  the  level  of  the  River  Moska.  The  Kitaigorod, 
or  Chinese  town,  is  situated  to  the  north-east  and  outside  of 
the  Kremlin,  and  is  in  turn  surrounded  by  a  wall  with  several 
gates.  It  is  irregularly  built  up,  contains  the  Stock  Exchange, 
the  Gostinny  Dvor  (bazaars),  the  Riady  (great  glass  enclosed 
arcades),  and  the  printing  office  of  the  Holy  Synod.  Just 
why  it  was  called  the  Chinese  town  is  not  known,  for  no  Chi- 
nese have  ever  settled  there.  The  allusion  may  be  to  the  Ta- 
tars, who  besieged  and  took  Moscow  several  times,  camping 
outside  the  Kremlin. 

The  Kremlin  and  Kitaigorod  are  considered  together  and 
known  as  the  "City"  {gorod),  much  as  the  same  word  is  ap- 
plied to  a  part  of  London,  The  enormous  walls  surrounding 
them  were  originally  whitewashed  and  of  white  stone,  and  are 
even  yet  white  in  places,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  poetic  name. 
Just  outside  of  it  lies  the  Bielygorod,  or  white  town,  extend- 
ing in  a  semicircle  from  the  Moskva  on  the  one  side  until  it 
reaches  the  Moskva  again.  The  Bielygorod  is  now  the  most 
elegant  and  fashionable  part  of  the  city  of  Moscow.  Con- 
taining as  it  does  beautiful  and  imposing  palaces,  many  fine 
public  monuments  and  magnificent  shops,  theaters,  and  public 
buildings,  it  presents  a  splendid  appearance  worthy  of  its 
ancient  history.  Around  this,  in  a  still  wider  semicircle,  is  the 
Zemlianoigorod,  or  earthwork  town,  so  called  because  of  the 
earthen  ramparts  which  were  constructed  there  by  Tsar  Mi- 
chael Feodorovich  in  1620  to  protect  the  growing  city  in  the 
Polish  wars.  They  have  been  levelled  and  replaced  by  the 
magnificent  boulevards  known  as  the  Sadovaya  (Garden  Ave- 
nues). 

The  wealthy  merchants  and  well-to-do  inhabitants  dwell 
here,  and  fine  buildings  are  seen  on  every  side.  The  remainder 
of  the  city  is  given  over  to  the  industrial  and  poor  classes, 
railway  stations,  and  factories  of  all  kinds.  In  addition,  there 
is  that  part  of  the  city  which  lies  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Moskva,  the  so-called  Zamoskvarechie  (quarter  beyond  the 
Moskva),  where  the  Tatars  dwelt  for  a  long  time  after  they 
had  been  driven  from  Moscow  proper.  Now  it  is  the  Old 
Russian  quarter,  where  old-fashioned  merchants  dwell  in  state 
and  keep  up  the  manners  and  customs  of  their  fathers.     The 


138  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

famous  Tretiakoff  art  galleries  are  situated  here.  There  are 
six  bridges  across  the  River  Moskva  connecting  both  parts 
of  the  city. 

The  name  Moscow  is  mentioned  in  Russian  chronicles  for 
the  first  time  in  1147.  In  March  of  that  year  Yuri  Dolgoruki 
(George  the  Long-armed),  Grand  Duke  of  Kieff  and  son  of 
Vladimir  Monomachus,  is  said  to  have  met  and  entertained 
his  kinsmen  there  at  the  village  of  the  Moskva.  So  pleased  was 
he  with  the  reception  which  he  had  received  and  so  impressed 
by  the  commanding  location  of  the  situation  that  he  built  a 
fortified  place  on  the  hill  where  the  meeting  took  place,  just 
where  the  present  Kremlin  is  situated.  The  word  Kremlin 
(Russian  Kreml)  seems  to  be  of  Tatar  origin,  and  means  a 
fortified  place  overlooking  the  surrounding  country.  Many 
other  Russian  cities  dating  from  Tatar  times  have  kremlins 
also,  such  as  Nizhni-Novgorod,  Vladimir,  Kazan,  and  Sa- 
mara. 

In  the  beginning  of  its  early  history  Moscow  was  nothing 
but  a  cluster  of  wooden  houses  surrounded  by  palisades;  in 
1237  the  Tatar  Khan  laid  siege  to  it,  and  his  successors  for 
several  centuries  were  alternately  victors  and  vanquished  be- 
fore it.  In  1293  Moscow  was  besieged  and  burned  by  the 
Mongols  and  Tatars,  but  under  the  rule  of  Daniel,  son  of 
Alexander  Nevsky,  its  fame  increased  and  it  became  of  im- 
portance. He  conquered  and  annexed  several  neighboring 
territories  and  enlarged  his  dominions  to  the  entire  length  of 
the  River  Moskva.  In  1300  the  Kremlin  was  enclosed  by  a 
strong  wall  of  earth  and  wooden  palisades,  and  it  then  received 
its  appellation.  In  13 16  the  Metropolitan  of  Kieff  changed 
his  see  from  that  city  to  Vladimir,  and  in  1322  thence  to  Mos- 
cow. The  first  cathedral  of  Moscow  was  built  in  1327.  The 
example  of  the  metropolitan  was  followed  in  1328  by  Grand 
Duke  Ivan  Danilovich,  who  left  Vladimir  and  made  Moscow 
his  capital.  In  1333  he  was  recognized  by  the  Khan  of  Kazan 
as  the  chief  prince  of  Russia,  and  he  extended  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Moscow.  In  1367  stone  walls  were  built  to  enclose 
the  Kremlin.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  city  was  again  plun- 
dered by  the  Tatars  two  years  later.  During  the  rule  of 
Dimitri  Donskoi  in  1382  the  city  was  burned  and  almost  en- 
tirely destroyed.  Vasili  II  was  the  first  Russian  prince  to  be 
crowned  at  Moscow  (1425). 


MOSCOW  139 

The  city,  although  still  the  greatest  in  Russia,  began  to  de- 
cHne  until  the  reign  of  Ivan  III  (1462-1505).  He  was  the 
first  to  call  himself  "Ruler  of  all  the  Russias"  {Hospodar 
vseya  Rossii),  and  made  Moscow  pre-eminently  the  capital 
and  centre  of  Russia,  besides  constructing  many  beautiful 
monuments  and  buildings. 

His  wife,  who  was  Sophia  Palaeologus,  was  a  Greek  princess 
from  Constantinople,  whose  marriage  to  him  was  arranged 
through  the  Pope,  and  who  brought  with  her  Greek  and  Italian 
artists  and  architects  to  beautify  the  city.  But  even  after  that 
the  Tatars  were  often  at  the  gates  of  Moscow,  although  they 
only  once  succeeded  in  taking  it.  Under  Ivan  IV,  surnamed 
the  Terrible  (Ivan  Grozny),  the  development  of  the  city  was 
continued.  He  made  Novgorod  and  Pskoff  tributary  to  it, 
and  subdued  Kazan  and  Astrakhan.  He  was  the  first  prince 
of  Russia  to  call  himself  Tsar,  the  Slavonic  name  for  king  or 
ruler  found  in  the  church  liturgy,  and  that  name  has  survived 
to  the  present  time,  although  Peter  the  Great  again  changed 
the  title  and  assumed  the  Latin  name  Imperator  (Emperor). 
This  latter  name  is  the  one  now  commonly  used  and  inscribed 
on  public  monuments  and  buildings  in  Russia.  Moscow  was 
almost  completely  destroyed  by  fire  in  1547;  in  1571  it  was 
besieged  and  taken  by  Devlet-Ghirei,  Khan  of  the  Crimean 
Tatars,  and  again  in  1591  the  Tatars  and  Mongols  under 
Kara-Ghirei  for  the  last  time  entered  and  plundered  the  city, 
but  did  not  succeed  in  taking  the  Kremlin.  During  the  reign 
of  Ivan  the  Terrible  the  adventurer  Yermak  crossed  the  Ural 
Mountains,  explored  and  claimed  Siberia  for  Russia ;  the  first 
code  of  Russian  laws,  the  Stoglav  (hundred  chapters),  was 
also  issued  under  this  emperor,  and  the  first  printing-ofiice 
set  up  at  Moscow.  Ivan  was  succeeded  by  Feodor  I,  the 
last  of  the  Rurik  dynasty,  during  whose  reign  (1584-98)  serf- 
dom was  introduced  and  the  Patriarchate  of  Moscow  estab- 
lished. During  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Ivan  the  Terri- 
ble, Boris  Godunoff,  a  man  of  high  ambitions  who  had  risen 
from  the  ranks  of  the  Tatars,  attained  to  great  power,  which 
was  augmented  by  the  marriage  of  his  sister  to  Feodor.  To 
ensure  his  brother-in-law's  succession  to  the  throne,  he  is  said 
to  have  caused  the  murder  of  Ivan's  infant  son,  Demetrius,  at 
Uglich  in  1582.  When  Feodor  I  died,  Boris  Godunoff  was 
made  Tsar,  and  ruled  fairly  well  until  1605.    The  year  before 


140  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

his  death  the  "False  Demetrius"  (Lzhedimitri)  appeared.  He 
was  said  to  have  gone  under  the  name  of  Gregory  Otrepieff, 
a  monk  of  the  Chudoff  monastery  (Monastery  of  the  Mira- 
cles) in  the  Kremlin,  who  fell  into  disgrace,  escaped  to  Poland, 
gave  himself  out  as  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Ivan  the  Terrible, 
who  had  in  some  way  escaped  Boris  Godunofif,  another  child 
having  been  murdered.  King  Sigismund  of  Poland  espoused 
his  claims,  furnished  him  an  army,  with  which  and  its  Rus- 
sian accessions  the  pretender  fought  his  way  back  to  Moscow, 
proclaiming  himself  the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne.  All  who 
looked  on  Boris  Godunoff  as  a  usurper  flocked  to  his  standard, 
the  widow  of  Ivan,  then  a  nun,  recognized  him  as  her  son, 
and  he  was  crowned  in  the  Kremlin  as  the  Tsar  of  the  Rus- 
sias.  For  ten  months  he  ruled,  but,  as  he  was  too  favorable 
to  the  Poles  and  even  allowed  Catholics  to  come  to  Moscow 
and  worship,  the  tide  then  turned  against  him,  and  in  1606  he 
was  assassinated  at  his  palace  in  the  Kremlin  by  the  Streitsi 
or  sharpshooters  who  formed  the  guard  of  the  Tsars  of 
Russia. 

After  seven  years  of  civil  war  and  anarchy  Michael  Ro- 
manoff, the  founder  of  the  present  dynasty,  was  elected  Tsar 
in  1 61 3.    But  Moscow  never  regained  its  earlier  pre-eminence, 
although  it  became  a  wealthy  commercial  city,  until  the  first 
part  of  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great   (1689-1725).     He  sent 
persons  abroad,  and,  having  observed  the  advancement  and 
progress  of  Western  Europe,  determined  to  improve  his  realm 
radically  by  introducing  the  forms  of  western  civilization.    All 
the  earlier  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  war  with  the  Swedish 
invaders  and  the   Polish  kings.     In    1700  he  abolished   the 
Patriarchate  of  Moscow,  left  the  see  vacant,  and  established 
the  Holy  Synod.     These  acts  set  Moscow,  the  old  Russians 
and  the  clergy  against  him,  so  that  in  171 2  he  changed  the  im- 
perial residence  and  capital  from  Moscow  to  St.  Petersburg, 
which  he  had  caused  to  be  constructed  for  the  new  capital  on 
the  banks  of  the  Neva.   After  the  departure  of  the  Tsars  from 
Moscow,  it  diminished  in  political  importance,  but  was  always 
regarded  as  the  seat  and  centre  of  Russian  patriotism.     In 
1755  the  University  of  Moscow  was  founded.    In  1812  during 
the  invasion  of  Russia  by  Napoleon,  the  Russians  determined 
after  the  Battle  of  Borodino  to  evacuate  Moscow  before  the 
victorious  French,  and  on  September  14,   1812,  the  Russian 


MOSCOW  141 

troops  deserted  the  city,  followed  by  the  greater  part  of  the 
inhabitants.  Shortly  afterwards  the  French  entered,  and  Na- 
poleon found  that  he  had  no  submissive  citizens  to  view  his 
triumphal  entry,  but  that  the  inhabitants  were  actually  burn- 
ing up  their  entire  city,  which  was  even  then  built  largely  of 
wood.  He  revenged  himself  by  desecrating  churches  and  de- 
stroying monuments.  The  Russian  winter  begins  in  October, 
and,  with  a  city  in  smoking  ruins  and  without  supplies  or  pro- 
visions. Napoleon  was  compelled,  on  October  19-22,  to  evacu- 
ate Moscow  and  retreat  from  Russia.  Cold  and  privation 
were  the  most  effective  allies  of  the  Russians.  The  recon- 
struction of  the  city  commenced  the  following  year,  and  from 
that  time  hardly  any  wooden  buildings  were  allowed.  In 
May,  1896,  at  the  coronation  of  Nicholas  II,  over  2,000  per- 
sons were  crushed  and  wounded  in  a  panic  just  outside  the 
city.  In  1905  the  Grand  Duke  Sergius  was  assassinated  in  the 
Kremlin  and  revolutionary  riots  occurred  throughout  the  city. 
Although  Moscow  is  no  longer  the  capital,  it  has  steadily 
grown  in  wealth  and  commercial  importance,  and,  while  sec- 
ond in  population  to  St.  Petersburg,  it  is  the  latter's  close  rival 
in  commerce  and  industry,  and  is  first  above  all  in  the  heart 
of  every  Russian. 

In  the  religious  development  of  Russia  Moscow  has  held 
perhaps  the  foremost  place.  In  1240  Kieff  was  taken  by  the 
Tatars,  who  in  1299  pillaged  and  destroyed  much  of  that 
mother  city  of  Christian  Russia.  Peter,  Metropolitan  of 
Kieff,  who  was  then  in  union  with  Rome,  in  13 16  changed  his 
see  from  that  city  to  the  city  of  Vladimir  upon  the  Kliazma, 
now  about  midway  between  Moscow  and  Nizhni-Novgorod, 
for  Vladimir  was  then  the  capital  of  Great  Russia.  In  1322 
he  again  changed  it  to  Moscow.  After  his  death  in  1328 
Theognostus,  a  monk  from  Constantinople,  was  consecrated 
Metropolitan  at  Moscow  under  the  title  "Metropolitan  of 
Kieff  and  Exarch  of  all  Russia,"  and  strove  to  make  Great 
Russia  of  the  north  ecclesiastically  superior  to  Little  Russia 
of  the  south.  In  1371  the  South  Russians  petitioned  the  Pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople:  "Give  us  another  metropolitan  for 
Kieff,  Smolensk,  and  Tver,  and  for  Little  Russia."  In  1379 
Pimen  took  at  Moscow  the  title  of  "Metropolitan  of  Kieff 
and  Great  Russia,"  and  in  1408  Photius,  a  Greek  from  Con- 
stantinople, was  made  "Metropolitan  of  all  Russia"  at  Mos- 


142  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

cow.  Shortly  afterwards  an  assembly  of  South  Russian  bish- 
ops was  held  at  Novogrodek,  and,  determined  to  become  inde- 
pendent of  Moscow,  sent  to  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
for  a  local  metropolitan  to  rule  over  them.  In  1416  Gregory  I 
was  made  "Metropolitan  of  Kieff  and  Lithuania,"  independ- 
ently of  Photius  who  ruled  at  Moscow.  But  at  the  death  of 
Gregory  no  successor  was  appointed  for  his  see.  Gerasim 
(1431-5)  was  the  successor  of  Photius  at  Moscow,  and  had 
correspondence  with  Pope  Eugene  IV  as  to  the  reunion  of 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches.  The  next  Metropolitan 
of  Moscow  was  the  famous  Greek  monk,  Isidore,  consecrated 
under  the  title  of  "Metropolitan  of  Kieff  and  Moscow."  When 
the  Council  of  Florence  for  the  reunion  of  the  East  and  West 
was  held,  he  left  Moscow  in  company  with  Bishop  Abraham 
of  Suzdal  and  a  large  company  of  Russian  prelates  and  the- 
ologians, attended  the  council,  and  signed  the  act  of  union  in 
1439.  Returning  to  Russia,  he  arrived  at  Moscow  in  the 
spring  of  1441,  and  celebrated  a  grand  pontifical  liturgy  at 
the  Cathedral  of  the  Assumption  in  the  Kremlin  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Grand  Duke  Vasili  II  and  the  Russian  clergy  and 
nobility.  At  its  close  his  chief  deacon  read  aloud  the  decree 
of  the  union  of  the  churches.  None  of  the  Russian  bishops 
or  clergy  raised  their  voices  in  opposition,  but  the  grand  duke 
loudly  upbraided  Isidore  for  turning  the  Russian  people  over 
to  the  Latins,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  Russian  bishops 
assembled  at  Moscow  followed  their  royal  master's  command 
and  condemned  the  union  and  the  action  of  Isidore.  He  was 
imprisoned,  but  eventually  escaped  to  Lithuania  and  Kieff, 
and  after  many  adventures  reached  Rome. 

From  this  time  the  two  portions  of  Russia  were  entirely 
distinct,  the  prelates  of  Moscow  bearing  the  title  "Metropoli- 
tan of  Moscow  and  all  Russia"  and  those  of  Kieff,  "Metro- 
politan of  Kieff,  Halich,  and  all  Russia."  This  division  and 
both  titles  were  sanctioned  by  Pope  Pius  II.  But  Kieff  con- 
tinued Catholic  and  in  communion  with  the  Holy  See  for 
nearly  a  century,  while  Moscow  rejected  the  union  and  re- 
mained in  schism.  After  Isidore  the  Muscovites  would  have 
no  more  metropolitans  sent  to  them  from  Constantinople,  and 
the  grand  duke  thereupon  selected  the  metropolitan.  Every 
effort  was  then  made  to  have  the  metropolitans  of  Moscow 
independent  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople^     After  the 


MOSCOW  143 

Turks  had  captured  Constantinople,  the  power  of  its  patriarch 
dwindled  still  more.  When  the  Bishop  of  Novgorod  declared 
in  1470  for  union  with  Rome,  Philip  I,  Metropolitan  of  Mos- 
cow, frustrated  it,  declaring  that,  for  signing  the  union  with 
Rome  at  Florence,  Constantinople  had  been  punished  by  the 
Turks.  This  hatred  of  Rome  was  fomented  to  such  a  point 
that,  rather  than  have  one  who  favored  Rome,  a  Jew  named 
Zozimas  was  made  Metropolitan  of  Moscow  (1490-4);  as, 
however,  he  openly  supported  his  brethren,  he  was  finally  de- 
posed as  an  unbeliever.  Yet  in  1525  the  Metropolitan,  Daniel, 
had  a  correspondence  with  Pope  Clement  VII  in  regard  to 
the  Florentine  Union,  and  in  1581  the  Jesuit  Possevin  visited 
Ivan  the  Terrible  and  sought  to  have  him  accept  the  principles 
of  the  Union.  In  1586,  after  the  death  of  Ivan,  the  archiman- 
drite Job  was  chosen  Metropolitan  of  Moscow  by  Tsar  Feo- 
dor  under  the  advice  of  Boris  Godunofif.  Just  at  that  time 
Jeremias  II,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  was  fleeing 
from  Turkish  oppression,  visited  Russia  and  was  received  with 
all  the  dignity  due  to  his  rank.  In  1589  he  arrived  at  Moscow 
and  was  fittingly  received  by  Boris  Godunoff,  who  promised 
to  take  his  part  against  the  Turks  if  possible,  and  who  re- 
quested him  to  create  a  patriarch  for  Moscow  and  Russia,  so 
that  the  orthodox  Church  might  once  more  count  its  five 
patriarchs  as  it  had  done  before  the  break  with  Rome.  Jere- 
mias consented  to  consecrate  Job  as  the  Patriarch  of  Moscow 
and  all  Russia,  and  actually  made  him  rank  as  the  third  patri- 
arch of  the  Eastern  Church,  preceding  those  of  Antioch  and 
Jerusalem.  This  patriarchate  was  in  fact  a  royal  creation 
dependent  upon  the  Tsar,  its  only  independence  consisting  of 
freedom  from  the  sovereignty  of  Constantinople. 

In  1653  the  Patriarch  Nikon  corrected  the  Slavonic  liturgi- 
cal books  of  the  Eastern  Rite  by  a  comparison  with  the  Greek 
originals,  but  many  of  the  Russians  refused  to  follow  his  re- 
forms, thus  beginning  the  schism  of  the  Old  Believers  or  Old 
Ritualists,  who  still  use  the  uncorrected  books  and  ancient 
practices.  The  Patriarchate  of  Moscow  lasted  until  the  reign 
of  Peter  the  Great  (that  is  no  years),  there  being  ten  patri- 
archs in  all.  When  Patriarch  Adrian  died,  in  1700,  Peter 
abolished  the  office  at  once,  and  allowed  the  see  to  remain 
vacant  for  twenty  years.  He  then  nominally  went  back  to  the 
old  order  of  things,  and  appointed  Stephen  Yavorski  "Metro- 


144  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

politan  of  Moscow,"  but  made  him  merely  a  servant  of  the 
Holy  Synod.     To  emphasize  the  new  order  of  things  more 
strongly,  it  is  related  that  Peter  himself  sat  on  the  patriarch's 
throne,  saying  in  grim  jest :    "I  am  the  patriarch."     Not  until 
1748  was  the  Eparchy  or  Metropolitanate  of  Moscow  canon- 
ically  established  by  the  Holy  Synod  under  the  new  order  of 
things.     In  1721   Peter  published  the  "Ecclesiastical  Regula- 
tions"  (Dukhovny  Reglament),  providing  for  the  entire  re- 
modelling of  the  Russian  Church  and  for  its  government  by  a 
departmental  bureau  called  the  Holy  Governing  Synod.    This 
body,  usually  known  as  the  Holy  Synod,  has  existed  ever  since. 
Its  members  are  required  to  swear  fidelity  to  the  Tsar  by  an 
oath  which  contains  these  words:     "I  confess  moreover  by 
oath  that  the  supreme  judge  of  this  ecclesiastical  assembly  is 
the  Monarch  himself  of  all  the  Russias,  our  most  gracious 
Sovereign"  {Reglament,  Prisiaga,  on  p.  4,  Tondini's  edition). 
The  Holy  Governing  Synod  is  composed  of  the  Metropolitans 
of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  and  Kieff,  several  other  bishops, 
and  certain  priests,  but  its  active  affairs  are  carried  on  by  lay 
government  officials   (the  bishops  act  rather  as  consultors  or 
advisors),   and  the  Chief   Procurator,  a   layman,  directs   its 
operations,  while  none  of  its  acts  are  valid  without  the  ap- 
proval (Sokvoleniya)  of  the  Tsar.    No  church  council  or  de- 
liberative church  organization  has  been  held  in  Russia  since 
the  establishment  of  the  Holy  Synod. 

The  chief  and  most  historic  buildings  in  Moscow  are  situ- 
ated in  the  Kremlin,  which  is  a  triangular  enclosure  upon  a 
hill  or  eminence  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Moskva.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  high  wall  of  brick  and  stone,  provided  with  high 
towers  at  intervals,  and  has  five  gates,  one  (for  pedestrians 
only)  in  the  wall  on  the  river  side  and  two  in  each  of  the  other 
walls  of  the  triangle.  The  most  celebrated  gate  is  the  Spassa- 
kaya  Vorota,  or  Gate  of  the  Saviour,  opening  out  upon  the 
Red  Square.  It  contains  a  venerated  image  or  icon  of  Christ, 
and  all  persons  passing  through  the  gate  must  remove  their 
hats  in  reverence.  Inside  the  Kremlin  are  churches,  palaces, 
convents,  a  parade  ground,  a  memorial  to  Alexander  II,  also 
the  Senate  (or  law  courts  building),  the  arsenal,  and  the  great 
Armory.  Directly  inside  the  Gate  of  the  Saviour  is  the  Con- 
vent of  the  Ascension  for  women,  founded  in  1389  by  Eu- 


MOSCOW  145 

doxia,  wife  of  Dimitri  Donskoi.  The  present  stone  convent 
building  was  erected  in  1737.  Just  beyond  it  stands  the  Chu- 
doff  monastery,  founded  in  1358  by  the  MetropoHtan  Alexis, 
and  here  in  1667  the  last  Russian  church  council  was  held. 
The  present  building  dates  from  1771.  Next  to  it  is  the  Nicho- 
las or  Minor  Palace  built  by  Catherine  II  and  restored  by 
Nicholas  I.  In  front  of  this  and  across  the  parade  ground 
near  the  river  wall  of  the  Kremlin  is  the  memorial  of  Alexan- 
der II,  very  much  in  the  style  of  the  Albert  Memorial  in  Lon- 
don. A  covered  gallery  surrounds  the  monument  on  three 
sides,  and  on  it  are  mosaics  of  all  the  rulers  of  Russia.  To 
the  west  of  the  Minor  Palace  is  the  church  and  tower  of  Ivan 
Veliky  (great  St.  John)  with  its  massive  bells.  At  the  foot  of 
the  tower  is  the  famous  Tsar  Kolokol  (king  of  bells),  the 
largest  bell  in  the  world.  It  was  cast  in  1734,  and  weighs  22 
tons,  is  20  feet  high  and  nearly  21  feet  in  diameter.  A  trian- 
gular piece  nearly  six  feet  high  was  broken  out  of  it  when  it 
fell  from  its  place  in  1737  during  a  fire.  Towards  the  north 
of  the  great  bell  in  front  of  the  barracks  at  the  other  end  of 
the  street,  is  the  Great  Cannon,  cast  in  1586,  which  has  a  cali- 
bre one  yard  in  diameter,  but  has  never  been  discharged.  Be- 
hind Ivan  Veliky  stands  the  Cathedral  of  the  Assumption,  the 
place  of  coronation  of  all  the  emperors  of  Russia,  and  the  place 
where  all  the  patriarchs  of  Moscow  are  entombed.  The  pres- 
ent cathedral  was  restored  and  rebuilt  in  part  after  Napoleon's 
invasion.  Across  a  small  square  is  the  Cathedral  of  the  Arch- 
angel Michael.  Here  lie  buried  all  the  Tsars  of  the  Rurik  and 
Romanoff  dynasties  down  to  Peter  the  Great.  He  and  his 
successors  lie  entombed  in  the  cathedral  in  the  Fortress  of  Sts. 
Peter  and  Paul  in  St.  Petersburg.  To  the  west  lies  the  Cathe- 
dral of  the  Annunciation,  in  which  all  the  Tsars  before  Peter 
were  baptized  and  married,  still  used  for  royal  baptisms  and 
marriages. 

Towards  the  westerly  end  of  the  Kremlin  is  the  Great  Palace 
in  which  all  the  history  of  Moscow  was  focussed  until  after 
the  time  of  Peter  the  Great.  It  is  the  union  and  combination 
of  all  the  ancient  palaces,  and  contains  the  magnificent  halls 
of  St.  George  and  St.  Alexander  and  also  the  ancient  Terem 
or  women's  palace,  which  is  now  completely  modernized.  In 
the  centre  of  the  courtyard  of  the  palace  stands  the  Church  of 


146  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Our  Saviour  in  the  Woods  (Spass  na  Boru).  It  was  origi- 
nally built  here  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
when  the  Kremlin  was  but  a  hill  still  covered  with  forest  trees, 
and  hence  its  name.  Ivan  I,  m  1330,  tore  down  the  primitive 
wooden  church  and  replaced  it  by  a  church  of  stone.  Outside 
the  Great  Palace  is  the  Armory,  one  of  the  finest  museums  of 
its  kind  in  Europe,  being  particularly  rich  in  collections  of  Rus- 
sian weapons  and  armor.  The  building  towards  the  north 
of  the  palace,  known  as  the  Synod,  was  the  residence  of  the 
patriarchs  of  Moscow  and  the  first  abiding-place  of  the  Holy 
Synod.  To  the  east  of  the  Kremlin,  outside  the  gates  of  the 
Saviour  and  of  St.  Nicholas,  is  the  well-known  Red  Square, 
where  much  of  the  history  of  Moscow  has  been  enacted.  At 
the  end  of  it  towards  the  river  stands  the  bizarre  church  of 
St.  Basil  the  Blessed,  of  which  Napoleon  is  said  to  have  or- 
dered:  "Burn  that  mosque!"  The  Historical  Museum  is  at 
the  other  end.  At  the  east  side  of  the  Red  Square  is  the  Loh- 
noe  Miesto  or  Calvary,  to  which  the  patriarchs  made  the  Palm 
Sunday  processions,  and  where  proclamations  of  death  were 
usually  read  in  olden  times.  Behind  it  are  the  magnificent 
Riady  or  glass-covered  arcades  for  fine  wares,  while  at  the 
northern  entrance  of  the  square  behind  the  Museum  is  the 
chapel  of  the  Iberian  Madonna  (Iverskay  a  Bogoroditza),  the 
most  celebrated  icon  in  all  Russia.  It  was  sent  to  Moscow  in 
1648  from  the  Iberian  monastery  on  Mount  Athos. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  modern  churches  in  Moscow  is 
the  Temple  of  Our  Saviour  and  Redeemer,  built  as  a  memorial 
and  thank  ofifering  in  commemoration  of  the  retreat  of  the 
French  from  Moscow.  It  was  consecrated  in  1883,  is  probably 
the  most  beautiful  church  in  Russia  and  is  filled  with  modern 
art  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  Greek  Rite.  There  are 
two  Arches  of  Triumph  in  Moscow — one  celebrating  1812,  near 
the  Warsaw  station,  and  the  other  called  the  Red  Gate,  com- 
memorating Empress  Elizabeth.  At  Sergievo,  about  forty 
miles  to  the  east  of  Moscow,  is  the  celebrated  Trinity  Monas- 
tery (Troitsa-Sergievskaya  Lavra),  which  is  intimately  bound 
up  with  the  history  of  Moscow,  and  is  one  of  the  greatest 
monasteries  and  most  celebrated  places  of  pilgrimage  in  Rus- 
sia; it  played  a  great  part  in  the  freeing  of  Russia  from  the 
Tatar  yoke.  There  are  three  Roman  Catholic  churches  in  Mos- 
cow :  the  large  church  of  St.  Louis  on  the  Malaya  Lubianka, 


MOSCOW  147 

the  church  and  school  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  in  the  Milutinsky 
Pereulok,  and  another  small  chapel.  There  is  also  a  Greek 
Catholic  chapel  recently  founded  by  a  priest  converted  from 
the  Old  Believers  with  a  handful  of  worshippers. 


GLAGOLITIC 

AN  ancient  alphabet  of  the  Slavic  languages,  also  called 
in  Russian  bukvitsa.  The  ancient  Slavonic  when  re- 
duced to  writing  seems  to  have  been  originally  written 
with  a  kind  of  runic  letters,  which,  when  formed  into  a  regular 
alphabet,  were  called  the  Glagolitic,  that  is  the  signs  which 
spoke.  St.  Cyril,  who,  together  with  his  brother  St.  Method- 
ius, translated  the  Greek  liturgy  into  Slavonic  when  he  con- 
verted the  Bulgarians  and  Moravians,  invented  the  form  of 
letters  derived  from  the  Greek  alphabet  with  which  the  church 
Slavonic  is  usually  written.  This  is  known  as  the  Cyrillic  al- 
phabet or  Kirillitsa.  The  Cyrillic  form  of  letters  is  used  in  all 
the  liturgical  books  of  the  Greek  Churches,  whether  Catholic 
or  schismatic,  which  use  the  Slavonic  language  in  their  liturgy, 
and  even  the  present  Russian  alphabet,  the  Grazhdanska,  is 
merely  a  modified  form  of  the  Cyrillic  with  a  few  letters  omit- 
ted. The  order  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  the  Glagolitic 
and  in  the  Cyrillic  is  nearly  the  same,  but  the  letters  bear  no 
resemblance  to  each  other,  except  possibly  in  one  or  two  in- 
stances. Jagic  upholds  the  theory  that  St.  Cyril  himself  in- 
vented the  Glagolitic,  and  that  his  disciple  St.  Clement  trans- 
formed it  into  Cyrillic  by  imitating  the  Greek  uncial  letters 
of  his  day.  There  is  a  tradition,  however,  that  St.  Jerome, 
who  was  a  Dalmatian,  was  the  inventor.  Some  of  the  earliest 
Slavic  manuscripts  are  written  in  the  Glagolitic  characters. 
The  Cyrillic  alphabet  continued  to  be  used  for  writing  the 
Slavonic  in  Bulgaria,  Russia  and  Galicia,  while  the  Southern 
and  Western  Slavs  used  the  Glagolitic.  These  Slavs  were  con- 
verted to  Christianity  and  to  the  Roman  Rite  by  Latin  mis- 
sionaries, and  gradually  the  Roman  alphabet  drove  out  the  use 
of  the  Glagolitic,  so  that  the  Bohemians,  Slovenians,  Moravi- 
ans, and  part  of  the  Croatians  used  Roman  letters  in  writing 
their  languages.  In  Southern  Croatia  and  in  Dalmatia  (often 
treated  as  synonymous  with  Illyria  in  ancient  times)  the  Gla- 

148 


GLAGOLITIC  149 

politic  has  continued  in  use  as  an  ecclesiastical  alphabet  in 
writing  the  ancient  Slavonic.  Although  the  Slavic  peoples 
bordering  on  the  Adriatic  Sea  were  converted  to  the  Roman 
Rite,  they  received  the  privilege,  as  well  as  their  brethren  of 
the  Greek  Rite,  of  having  the  Mass  and  the  offices  of  the 
Church  said  in  their  own  tongue.  Thus  the  Roman  Mass  was 
translated  into  the  Slavonic,  and,  in  order  to  more  fully  distin- 
guish the  Western  Rite  from  the  Eastern  Rite  among  the  Slavic 
peoples,  the  use  of  the  Glagolitic  alphabet  was  reserved  exclu- 
sively for  the  service  books  of  the  Roman  Rite,  just  as  the 
Cyrillic  was  used  for  the  Greek  Rite. 

The  use  of  the  Glagolitic  Missal  and  office  books,  while  per- 
mitted in  general  among  the  Slavs  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia 
from  the  earliest  times  since  the  Slavonic  became  a  liturgical 
language  under  Pope  John  VIII,  was  definitely  settled  by  the 
Constitution  of  Urban  VIII,  dated  April  29,  163 1,  in  which  he 
provided  for  a  new  and  corrected  edition  of  the  Slavic  Missal 
conformable  to  the  Roman  editions.  In  1648  Innocent  X  pro- 
vided likewise  for  the  Slavic  Breviary,  and  by  order  of  Inno- 
cent XI  the  new  edition  of  the  Roman-Illyrian  Breviary  was 
published  in  1688.  In  the  preface  to  this  Breviary  the  Pope 
speaks  of  the  language  and  letters  employed  therein,  and  gives 
St.  Jerome  the  credit  for  the  invention  of  the  Glagolitic  char- 
acters :  "Quum  igitur  lUyricarum  gentium,  quae  longe  lateque 
per  Europam  diffusse  sunt,  atque  ab  ipsis  gloriosis  Apostolorum 
Principibus  Petro  et  Paulo  potissimum  Christi  fidem  edoctae 
fuerunt  libros  sanctos  jam  inde  a  S.  Hieronymi  temporibus,  ut 
pervetusta  ad  nos  detulit  traditio,  vel  certe  a  Pontificatu  fel. 
rec.  Joannis  Papse  VIII,  praedecessoris  nostri,  uti  ex  ejusdem 
data  super  ea  re  epistola  constat,  ritu  quidem  romano,  sed 
idiomate  slavonico,  et  charactere  S.  Hieronymi  vulgo  nuncu- 
pato  conscriptos,  opportuna  recognitione  indigere  compertum 
sit."  The  new  edition  of  the  Roman  Ritual  in  Glagolitic  form 
had  previously  been  published  in  the  year  1640. 

The  latest  editions  of  the  Missal  and  ritual  are  those  of 
the  Propaganda,  "Missale  Romanum,  Slavica  lingua,  glagoli- 
tico  charactere"  (Rome,  1893),  and  "Rimski  Ritual  (Obred- 
nik)  izdan  za  zapoviedi  Sv.  Otca  Pape  Paula  V"  (Rome, 
1894).  There  was  a  former  edition  of  the  Glagolitic  Missal, 
^'Ordo  et  Canon  Missse,  Slavice"  (Rome,  1887),  but  on  account 
of  the  numerous  errors  in  printing  and  text  it  was  destroyed, 


150  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

and  only  a  few  copies  are  in  existence.  The  use  of  the  Latin 
language  in  the  Dalmatian  seminaries  since  the  year  1828  has 
had  the  effect  of  increasing  the  use  of  the  Latin  in  the  Roman 
Rite  there,  and  the  use  of  the  Glagolitic  books  has  accordingly 
diminished.  Of  course  the  non-Slavic  inhabitants  of  Dalmatia 
and  Croatia  have  always  used  the  Latin  language  in  the  Roman 
Rite.  At  present  the  Slavonic  language  for  the  Roman  Rite, 
printed  in  Glagolitic  characters,  is  used  in  the  Slavic  churches 
of  the  Dioceses  of  Zengg,  Veglia,  Zara  and  Spalato,  and  also 
by  the  Franciscans  in  their  three  churches  in  Veglia,  one  in 
Cherso,  two  in  Zara,  and  one  in  Sebenico.  Priests  are  for- 
bidden to  mingle  the  Slavonic  and  Latin  languages  in  the  cele- 
bration of  the  Mass,  which  must  be  said  wholly  in  Slavonic 
or  wholly  in  Latin. 


ICONOSTASIS 

THE  Iconostasis  is  the  chief  and  most  distinctive  feature 
in  all  Greek  churches,  whether  Catholic  or  Orthodox. 
It  may  be  said  to  differentiate  the  Greek  church  com- 
pletely from  the  Roman  in  its  interior  arrangement.  It  con- 
sists of  a  great  screen  or  partition  running  from  side  to  side 
of  the  apse  or  across  the  entire  end  of  the  church,  which  divides 
the  sanctuary  from  the  body  of  the  church,  and  is  built  of  solid 
materials  such  as  stone,  metal,  or  wood,  and  which  reaches 
often  (as  in  Russia)  to  the  very  ceiling  of  the  church,  thus 
completely  shutting  off  the  altar  and  the  sanctuary  from  the 
worshipper.  It  has  three  doors :  the  great  royal  door  in  the 
middle  (so  called  because  it  leads  directly  to  the  altar  upon 
which  the  King  of  kings  is  sacrificed),  the  deacon's  door  to 
the  right,  and  the  door  of  the  proskomide  (preparation  for 
Mass)  upon  the  left,  when  viewing  the  structure  from  the 
standpoint  of  a  worshipper  in  the  body  of  the  church. 

Two  pictures  or  icons  must  appear  upon  every  iconostasis, 
no  matter  how  humble,  in  the  Greek  church ;  the  picture  of 
Our  Lord  on  the  right  of  the  royal  door,  and  that  of  Our  Lady 
upon  the  left.  But  in  the  finer  churches  of  Russia,  Greece, 
Turkey  and  the  East,  the  iconostasis  has  a  wealth  of  paintings 
lavished  upon  it.  Besides  the  two  absolutely  necessary  pic- 
tures, the  whole  screen  is  covered  with  them.  On  the  royal 
door  there  is  always  the  Annunciation  and  often  the  four  Evan- 
gelists. On  each  of  the  other  doors  there  are  St.  Michael  and 
St.  Gabriel.  Beyond  the  deacon's  door  there  is  usually  the 
saint  to  whom  the  church  is  dedicated,  while  at  the  opposite 
end  there  is  either  St.  Nicholas  of  Myra  or  St.  John  the  Bap- 
tist. Directly  above  the  royal  door  is  a  picture  of  the  Last 
Supper,  and  above  that  is  often  a  large  picture  (deisus)  of 
Our  Lord  sitting  crowned  upon  a  throne,  clothed  in  priestly 
raiment,  as  King  and  High-priest.  At  the  very  top  of  the  ico- 
nostasis is  a  large  cross  (often  a  crucifix  in  bas-relief),  the 

151 


152  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

source  of  our  salvation,  and  on  either  side  of  it  are  the  pictures 
of  Our  Lady  and  of  St.  John. 

Where  the  iconostasis  is  very  lofty,  as  among  the  Slavonic 
nationalities,  whether  Orthodox  or  Catholic,  the  pictures  upon 
it  are  arranged  in  tiers  or  rows  across  its  entire  length.  Those 
on  the  lower  ground  tier  have  already  been  described ;  the  first 
tier  above  that  is  a  row  of  pictures  commemorating  the  chief 
feasts  of  the  Church,  such  as  the  Nativity,  Annunciation, 
Transfiguration,  etc. ;  above  them  is  another  tier  of  the  twelve 
Apostles;  and  above  them  a  tier  containing  the  Prophets  of 
the  Old  Law ;  and  lastly  the  very  top  of  the  iconostasis.  These 
pictures  are  usually  painted  in  the  stiff  Byzantine  manner,  al- 
though in  many  Russian  churches  they  have  begun  to  use  mod- 
ern art;  the  Temple  of  the  Saviour,  in  Moscow,  is  a  notable 
example.  The  iconostases  in  the  Greek  (Hellenic)  churches 
have  never  been  so  lofty  and  as  full  of  paintings  as  those  in 
Russia  and  other  countries.  A  curious  form  of  adornment  of 
the  icons  or  pictures  has  grown  up  in  Russia  and  is  also  found 
in  other  parts  of  the  East.  Since  the  Orthodox  Church  would 
not  admit  sculptured  figures  on  the  inside  of  churches  (al- 
though they  often  have  numerous  statues  upon  the  outside) 
they  imitated  an  effect  of  sculpture  in  the  pictures  placed  upon 
the  iconostasis  which  produces  an  incongruous  effect  upon 
the  Western  mind.  The  icon,  which  is  generally  painted  upon 
wood,  is  covered  except  as  to  the  face  and  hands  with  a  raised 
relief  of  silver,  gold,  or  seed  pearls  showing  all  the  details 
and  curves  of  the  drapery,  clothing  and  halo;  thus  giving  a 
crude  cameo-like  effect  around  the  flat  painted  face  and  hands 
of  the  icon. 

The  iconostasis  is  really  an  Oriental  development  in  adorn- 
ing the  holy  place  about  the  Christian  altar.  Originally  the 
ahar  stood  out  plain  and  severe  in  both  the  Oriental  and  Latin 
Rites.  But  in  the  Western  European  churches  and  cathedrals 
the  Gothic  church  builders  put  a  magnificent  wall,  the  reredos, 
immediately  behind  the  altar  and  heaped  ornamentation,  fig- 
ures and  carvings  upon  it  until  it  became  resplendent  with 
beauty.  In  the  East,  however,  the  Greeks  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  the  barrier  or  partition  dividing  the  altar  and  sanctuary 
from  the  rest  of  the  church  and  commenced  to  adorn  and  beau- 
tify that,  and  thus  gradually  made  it  higher  and  covered  it 
with  pictures  of  the  Apostles,  Prophets,  and  saints.    Thus  the 


ICONOSTASIS  153 

Greek  Church  put  its  ornamentation  of  the  holy  place  in  front 
of  the  altar  instead  of  behind  it  as  in  the  Latin  churches.  In 
its  present  form  in  the  churches  of  the  Byzantine  (and  also  the 
Coptic)  Rite  the  iconostasis  is  comparatively  modern,  not 
older  than  the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth  centuries.  It  was 
never  used  in  the  Roman  churches  or  any  of  the  Latin  churches 
of  the  West,  and  was  unknown  to  the  early  Church.  The 
modern  chancel  rail  of  the  Latin  Rite  correctly  represents  the 
primitive  barrier  separating  the  altar  from  the  people.  In  the 
great  Gothic  cathedrals  the  choir  screen  or  rood  screen  may  be 
said  in  a  manner  to  be  the  analogue  of  the  iconostasis,  but  that 
is  the  nearest  approach  to  it  in  the  Western  Church.  None 
of  the  historians  or  liturgical  writers  of  the  early  or  middle 
Greek  Church  ever  mention  the  iconostasis.  Indeed  the  name 
to-day  is  chiefly  in  Russian  usage,  for  the  meaning  of  the 
Greek  word  is  not  restricted  merely  to  the  altar  screen,  but  is 
applied  to  any  object  supporting  a  picture.  The  word  is  first 
mentioned  in  Russian  annals  in  1528,  when  one  was  built  by 
Macarius,  Metropolitan  of  Novgorod. 

In  the  early  Greek  churches  there  was  a  slight  barrier  about 
waist  high,  or  even  lower,  dividing  the  altar  from  the  people. 
This  was  variously  known  as  KiyxXts,  grating,  Spv^aKxa,  fence, 
Siao-TvXa,  a  barrier  made  of  columns,  according  to  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  constructed.  Very  often  pictures  of  the  saints 
were  affixed  to  the  tops  of  the  columns.  When  Justinian  con- 
structed the  "great"  church,  St.  Sophia,  in  Constantinople,  he 
adorned  it  with  twelve  high  columns  (in  memory  of  the  twelve 
Apostles)  in  order  to  make  the  barrier  or  chancel,  and  over 
the  tops  of  these  columns  he  placed  an  architrave  which  ran 
the  entire  width  of  the  sanctuary.  On  this  architrave  or  cross- 
beam large  disks  or  shields  were  placed  containing  the  pictures 
of  the  saints,  and  this  arrangement  was  called  tcjuttXcv  (tem- 
plum),  either  from  its  fancied  resemblance  to  the  front  of  the 
old  temples  or  as  expressing  the  Christian  idea  of  the  shrine 
where  God  was  worshipped.  Every  church  of  the  Byzantine 
Rite  eventually  imitated  the  "great"  church  and  so  this  open 
tc^ttXov  form  of  iconostasis  began  to  be  adopted  among  the 
churches  of  the  East,  and  the  name  itself  was  used  to  desig- 
nate what  is  now  the  iconostasis. 

Many    centuries    elapsed    before    there    was   any    approach 
towards  making  the  solid  partition  which  we  find  in  the  Greek 


154  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

churches  of  to-day.  But  gradually  the  demand  for  greater 
adornment  grew,  and  to  satisfy  it  pictures  were  placed  over 
the  entire  iconostasis,  and  so  it  began  to  assume  somewhat  the 
present  form.  After  the  Council  of  Florence  (1438)  when 
the  last  conciliar  attempt  at  reunion  of  the  Churches  failed,  the 
Greek  clergy  took  great  pleasure  in  building  and  adorning  their 
churches  as  little  like  the  Latin  ones  as  possible,  and  from  then 
on  the  iconostasis  assumed  the  form  of  the  wall-like  barrier 
which  it  has  at  present.  As  its  present  form  is  merely  a  mat- 
ter of  development  of  Church  architecture  suitable  and  adapted 
to  the  Greek  Rite,  the  iconostasis  was  continuously  used  by 
the  Catholics  as  well  as  by  the  Orthodox. 


HUNGARIAN  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA 

THE  Kingdom  of  Hungary   (Magyarorszag)   comprises 
within  its  borders  several  races  or  nationalities  other 
than  the  one  from  which  it  derives  its  name.     Indeed 
the  Hungarians  are  in  the  minority  (or  perhaps  a  bare  ma- 
jority)   when  contrasted  with  all  the  others  combined;  but 
they  outnumber  any  one  of  the  other  races  under  the  Hun- 
garian Crown.     It  therefore   frequently  happens   that  immi- 
grants to  the  United  States  coming  from  the  Kingdom  of  Hun- 
gary, no  matter  what  race  they  may  be,  are  indiscriminately 
classed  as  Hungarians,  even  by  persons  fairly  well  informed. 
The  Kingdom  of  Hungary,  which  is  separate  from  Austria 
except  in  matters  affecting  foreign  relations,  comprises  within 
its  borders  not  only  the  Hungarians  proper,  but  also  the  Slo- 
vaks, Ruthenians,  Rumanians,   Slavonians  and  Croatians,  as 
well  as  a  large  number  of  Germans  and  some  Italians.    Repre- 
sentatives of  all  these  races  from  the  Hungarian  Kingdom 
have  emigrated  to  America.    Their  mother  tongue  is  of  Asiatic 
origin  and  is  quite  unlike  any  of  the  Indo-European  languages 
in  its  vocabulary,  structure,  and  grammatical  forms.     All  its 
derivative  words  are  made  up  from  its  own  roots  and  for  the 
most  part  are  wholly  native.     Although  it  is  surrounded  and 
touched  in  social  and  business  intercourse  on  every  side  by 
the  various  Slavonic  tongues  and  by  the  Italian,  German  and 
Rumanian  languages,  besides  having  the  church  liturgy  and 
university  teaching  in  Latin,  the  Hungarian   (Magyar)    lan- 
guage has  nothing  in  it  resembling  any  of  them,  and  has  bor- 
rowed little  or  nothing  from  their  various  vocabularies.    It  re- 
mains isolated,  almost  without  a  relative  in  the  realm  of  Euro- 
pean  linguistics.     This  barrier  of  language  has  rendered  it 
exceedingly  difficult  for  the  Hungarian  immigrant  to  acquire 
the  English  language  and  thereby  readily  assimilate  American 
ideas  and  customs.     Notwithstanding  this  drawback  the  Hun- 
garian Americans  have  made  progress  of  which  every  one  may 

155 


156  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

well  be  proud.  Although  Count  Beldy  and  his  three  compan- 
ions, Boloni,  Wesselenyi  and  Balogh,  settled  in  America  in 
183 1,  immigration  to  the  United  States  from  Hungary  may  be 
said  to  have  set  in,  after  the  revolution  of  1848-49  in  Hun- 
gary, by  the  coming  of  Louis  Kossuth  to  the  United  States,  in 
December,  185 1,  on  the  warship  Mississippi,  after  the  failure 
of  his  struggle  for  Hungarian  liberties.  He  was  accompanied 
by  fifty  of  his  compatriots  and  many  of  these  remained  and 
settled  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  During  the  Civil  War 
and  the  wars  between  Germany  and  Austria,  m.ore  and  more 
Hungarian  immigrants  arrived,  but  they  were  then  for  the 
most  part  reckoned  as  Austrians. 

It  was  not  until  1880  that  the  Hungarian  immigration  really 
set  in.  Between  1880  and  1898  about  200,cx)0  Hungarians 
came  to  America.  The  reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Immi- 
gration show  that  the  number  of  Hungarian  (Magyar)  immi- 
grants from  the  year  1899  to  July,  1909,  amounted  to  310,869. 
The  greatest  migration  year  was  1907,  when  60,071  arrived. 
There  are  now  about  three-quarters  of  a  million  of  them  in 
the  United  States.  They  are  scattered  throughout  the  country 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  and  fill  every  walk  in  life. 
This  immigration,  while  caused  in  a  great  measure  by  an  ef- 
fort to  better  the  condition  of  the  Hungarian  of  humbler  cir- 
cumstances, has  been  largely  stimulated  by  the  agencies  of  the 
various  European  steamship  companies,  who  have  found  it  a 
paying  business  to  spread  tales  of  easily  earned  riches  among 
dissatisfied  Hungarian  laborers.  Peculiar  political  conditions, 
poverty  among  the  agricultural  classes,  and  high  taxes  have 
contributed  to  cause  such  immigration.  But  it  cannot  be  said 
that  a  desire  to  emigrate  to  other  lands  is  natural  to  the  real 
Hungarian,  for  his  country  is  not  in  the  least  overcrowded  and 
its  natural  resources  are  sufficient  to  afiford  a  decent  livelihood 
for  all  its  children.  There  are  but  few  Hungarians  emigrating 
from  the  southern,  almost  wholly  Magyar,  counties.  They 
come  either  from  the  large  cities  or  from  localities  where  the 
warring  racial  struggles  make  the  search  for  a  new  home  de- 
sirable. While  a  very  large  part  of  this  immigration  to  the 
United  States  is  Catholic,  yet  the  combined  Protestant,  Jewish, 
and  indifferentist  Hungarian  immigrants  outnumber  them,  so 
that  the  Catholics  number  not  quite  one-half  of  the  total.  The 
Hungarians  in  the  City  of  New  York  are  said  to  number  over 


HUNGARIAN  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA       157 

100,000.  They  are  numerous  in  New  Jersey  and  Connecticut; 
and  every  city,  mining  town,  iron  works,  and  factory  village 
in  Pennsylvania  has  a  large  contingent;  probably  a  third  of 
the  Hungarian  population  resides  in  that  State.  Cleveland  and 
Chicago  both  have  a  very  large  Hungarian  population,  and 
they  are  scattered  in  every  mining  and  manufacturing  centre 
throughout  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois,  while  West  Virginia  has 
numbers  of  them  in  its  mining  districts. 

For  a  long  time  after  the  Hungarian  immigration  began  no 
attention  was  paid,  from  the  racial  standpoint,  to  their  spir- 
itual needs  as  Catholics.     They  worshipped  at  German  and 
Slavic  churches  and  were  undistinguishable  from  the  mass  of 
other   foreign  Catholics.     During  the  eighties  their   spiritual 
welfare  was  occasionally  looked  after  by  priests  of  the  Slavic 
nationalities  in  the  larger  American  cities,  for  they  could  often 
speak  Hungarian  and  thus  get  in  touch  with  the  people.    About 
1891  Bishop  Horstmann  of  Cleveland  secured  for  the  Txlagyars 
of  his  city  a  Hungarian  priest,  Rev.  Charles  Bohm,  who  was 
sent  there  at  his  request  by  the  Bishop  of  Vac  to  take  charge 
of  them.    The  year  1892  marks  the  starting-point  of  an  earnest 
missionary  effort  among  the  Hungarian  Catholics  in  this  coun- 
try.    Father  Bohm's  name  is  connected  with  every  temporal 
and  spiritual  effort  for  the  benefit  of  his  countrymen.     Being 
the  only  priest   whom  the  Hungarians   could  claim  as   their 
own,  he  was  in  demand  in  every  part  of  the  country  and  for 
over  seven  years  his  indefatigable  zeal  and  capacity  for  work 
carried  him  over  a  vast  territory  from  Connecticut  to  Cali- 
fornia,   where    he    founded    congregations,    administered    the 
sacraments,  and  brought  the  careless  again  into  the  Church. 
He  built  the  first  Hungarian  church  (St.  Elizabeth's)  in  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  as  well  as  a  large  parochial  school  for  600  pupils, 
a  model  of  its  kind,  and  also  founded  the  two  Hungarian  Cath- 
olic papers,  "Szent  Erzsebet  Hirnoke''  and  "Alagyarok  Vasar- 
napja."     The  second  Hungarian  church   (St.  Stephen's)  was 
founded  at  Bridgeport,   Connecticut,  in    1897,  and  the  third 
(St.  Stephen's)   at  McKeesport,  Pennsylvania,  in   1899.     Be- 
sides  those  named,   the   following  Hungarian   churches   have 
been  established  :    ( 1900)  South  Bend,  Indiana  ;  Toledo,  Ohio ; 
(1901)    Fairport,    Ohio;    Throop,  Pennsylvania;  (1902)  Mc- 
Adoo  and  South  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania  ;  New  York  City, 
New  York;   Passaic,  New  Jersey;    (1903)    Alpha  and  Perth 


158  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Amboy,  New  Jersey;  Lorain,  Ohio;  (1904)  Chicago,  Illinois; 
Cleveland  (St.  Imre's)  and  Dillonvale,  Ohio;  Trenton  and 
New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey ;  Connellsville,  Pennsylvania ; 
Pocahontas,  Virginia;  (1905)  Buffalo,  New  York;  Detroit, 
Michigan;  Johnstown,  Pennsylvania;  (1906)  Dayton,  Ohio; 
South  Norwalk,  Connecticut;  (1907)  Newark  and  South 
River,  New  Jersey ;  Northampton,  Pennsylvania ;  Youngstown, 
Ohio;  (1908)  East  Chicago,  Indiana;  Columbus,  Ohio;  (1909) 
Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania.  There  are  about  thirty  Hunga- 
rian priests  who  minister  to  the  spiritual  wants  of  these  con- 
gregations, but  more  priests  are  urgently  needed  in  order  ef- 
fectually to  reach  their  countrymen.  Although  there  are  nearly 
half  a  million  Hungarian  Catholics  in  the  United  States,  in- 
cluding the  native  born,  only  thirty-three  churches  seem  a 
faint  proof  of  practical  Catholicity ;  yet  one  must  not  forget 
that  these  Hungarian  immigrants  are  scattered  among  a  thou- 
sand different  localities  in  this  country,  usually  very  far  apart 
and  in  only  small  numbers  in  each  place.  Only  in  a  few  of 
the  larger  places,  such  as  New  York,  Cleveland,  Chicago. 
Bridgeport,  is  there  a  sufficiently  large  number  to  support  a 
church  and  the  priest  in  charge  of  it.  Besides  it  has  been 
found  extremely  difficult  to  procure  Magyar  priests  suitable 
for  missionary  work  among  their  countrymen  here  in  America. 
An  attempt  has  been  made  in  various  dioceses  to  supply  the 
deficiency.  In  the  Diocese  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  Rev.  Roderic 
McEachen,  of  Barton,  and  Rev.  Joseph  Weigand,  of  Steuben- 
ville,  have  devoted  themselves  to  the  Magyar  language  and 
have  become  sufficiently  conversant  with  it  to  meet  the  reli- 
gious needs  of  their  Hungarian  parishioners.  In  Pocahontas, 
Virginia,  Rev.  Anthony  Hoch,  O.  S.  B.,  is  familiar  with  this 
difficult  language,  having  spent  over  a  year  in  Hungary  at  the 
request  of  his  superiors,  in  order  to  learn  the  Hungarian 
tongue.  The  late  Bishop  Tierney  of  Hartford,  in  order  to 
meet  the  wants  of  his  diocese,  sent  eight  of  his  young  clerics 
about  two  years  ago  to  study  theology  and  the  Magyar  lan- 
guage in  Hungarian  seminaries  [six  to  Budapest  and  two  to 
Karlsburg  (Gyulyafehervar)],  where  they  are  preparing  for 
the  priesthood  and  learning  the  language  and  customs  of  the 
people.  Two  of  them  have  just  returned,  having  been  ordained 
at  Budapest.  It  is  not  intended  by  this  policy  to  place  Ameri- 
can priests  over  Hungarian  congregations,  but  to  supply  mixed 


HUNGARIAN  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA       159 

congregations,  where  Hungarians  are  numerous,  with  priests 
who  can  speak  their  language  and  keep  them  in  the  practice  of 
their  religion. 

While  Catholic  societies  and  membership  in  them  are  con- 
stantly increasing  everywhere  in  this  country,  the  Hungarian 
element  can  boast  of  only  a  relatively  small  progress.      The 
Magyars  have  one  Catholic  Association  (Sziiz  Maria  Szovet- 
seg),  with  headquarters  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  which  was  founded 
in  1896  under  the  leadership  of  Rev.  Charles  Bohm,  assisted 
by  Joseph  Pity,  Francis  Apathy  and  John  Weizer.    This  asso- 
ciation has  2,500  members,  comprising  about  eighty  councils 
in  different  States.     Besides  being  a  religious  organization  it 
is  also  a  benefit  association  providing  life  insurance  for  its 
members.     There  are  also  several  other  Catholic  Hungarian 
benefit  societies  throughout  the  country,  the  largest  being  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  the  Catholic  Union  (Szent  Erzsebet  Unio), 
with  800  members.     There  are  many  other  non-Catholic  Hun- 
garian societies,  to  which  Catholic  Hungarians  belong,  the  two 
largest  being  the  Bridgeporti  Szovetseg  with  250  councils  and 
Verhovai  Egylet  with  130  councils.    The  Hungarian  Reformed 
Church  has  also  a  church  association  based  upon  the  same 
lines  as  the  Catholic  societies  and  with  about  the  same  mem- 
bership.   In  1907  the  Hungarian  National  Federation  (Ameri- 
kai  Magyar  Szovetseg),  an  organization  embracing  all  Mag- 
yars of  whatsoever  creed,  was  founded  with  great  enthusiasm 
in  Cleveland,  its  object  being  to  care  for  the  material  interests 
and  welfare  of  Hungarians  in  America.     Julius  Rudnyansky, 
a  noted  Catholic  poet  and  writer,  was  one  of  the   founders. 
Despite  its  good  intentions,  it  has  failed  to  obtain  the  unquali- 
fied support  of  Hungarians  throughout  the  country.     The  pa- 
rochial  schools   established   by   the   Hungarians   have   grown 
rapidly.     The  finest  was   built  in   Cleveland,   Ohio,   by   Rev. 
Charles  Bohm,  and  now  contains  655  pupils.     There  are  alto- 
gether (in  1909)  twelve  Hungarian  parochial  schools  contain- 
ing about  2,500  children.     No  attempt  at  any  institutions  of 
higher  education  has  been  made,  nor  are  there  any  purely  Hun- 
garian teaching  orders  (male  or  female)  in  the  United  States 

to-day. 

The  first  Hungarian  paper  was  a  little  sheet  called  "Magyar 
Szamiizottek  Lapja"  (Hungarian  Exiles'  Journal),  which  made 
its  first  appearance  on  October  15,  1853,  and  lived  a  few  years. 


i6o  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

The  next  one  was  "Amerikai  Nemzetor"  (American  Guards- 
man) in  1884,  which  has  long  since  ceased  to  exist.  The  "Sza- 
badsag"  (Liberty)  w^as  founded  in  1891  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  by 
Tilmer  Kohanyi,  and  is  a  flourishing  daily  pubHshed  there  and 
in  New  York.  Catholic  Hungarian  journalism  in  America  pre- 
sents but  a  meagre  history.  Soon  after  the  arrival  of  Father 
Bohm  he  started  a  religious  weekly  at  Cleveland  called  "Magya- 
rorszagi  Szent  Erzsebet  Hirnoke"  (St.  EHzabeth's  Hungarian 
Herald).  Two  years  later  this  weekly  developed  into  a  full- 
fledged  newspaper  of  eight  pages,  called  "Magyarok  Vasar- 
napja"  (Hungarian  Sunday  News),  and  became  quite  popular. 
In  the  beginning  of  1907  the  Hungarian  Catholic  clergy,  hop- 
ing to  put  Catholic  journaHsm  on  a  stronger  foundation,  held 
an  enthusiastic  meeting  at  Cleveland  and  took  the  "Magyarok 
Vasarnapja"  under  their  joint  control  and  selected  as  its  editor 
Rev.  Stephen  F.  Chernitzky,  from  whom  in  great  part  the  facts 
for  this  article  have  been  obtained.  But  notwithstanding  his 
hard  work  in  Catholic  journalism  the  panic  of  1907  deprived  it 
of  financial  backing  and  it  lost  much  of  its  patronage.  At 
Cleveland  there  is  also  a  Catholic  weekly  "Haladas"  (Progress), 
started  in  1909.  Rev.  Geza  Messerschmiedt,  of  Passaic.  New 
Jersey,  is  conducting  a  monthly  Catholic  paper,  "Hajnal" 
(Dawn),  and  there  is  also  another  Catholic  Hungarian 
monthly,  "Magyar  Zaszlo"  (Hungarian  Standard),  pubUshed 
at  McKeesport,  Pennsylvania,  by  Rev.  Colman  Kovacs.  Other 
clergymen  like  Rev.  Alexander  Varlaky,  of  Bethlehem,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Rev.  Louis  Kovacs,  of  New  York  City,  have 
undertaken  the  task  of  keeping  alive  small  Catholic  weekly 
papers  for  the  benefit  of  their  countrymen. 

A  great  many  of  the  Hungarians  in  America  are  indiflfer- 
entists  and  free-thinkers  and  from  them  the  Liberals  and  So- 
cialists are  recruited.  But  a  large  number  are  Protestants  of 
a  Calvinistic  type,  somewhat  similar  to  the  various  Presby- 
terian denominations  in  this  country.  Although  actually  less 
numerous  than  the  Catholic  Hungarians,  they  have  more 
churches  here.  There  are  forty  in  all,  consisting  of  thirty- 
nine  Reformed  churches  and  one  Hungarian  Lutheran  congre- 
gation. One  division  of  the  Reformed  Church  is  aided  by  the 
Reformed  Board  of  Missions  in  Hungary,  having  under  its 
control  19  churches  and  20  ministers,  while  8  churches  of  the 
other  division  are  controlled  and  supported  by  the  Board  of 


HUNGARIAN  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA      i6i 

Home  Missions  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America,  and  12 
by  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  America.  The  Lutheran  con- 
gregation is  located  at  Cleveland,  Ohio.  Too  short  a  time  has 
elapsed  since  the  establishment  of  Hungarian  Catholic  churches 
in  America  to  speak  of  the  distinguished  participants  therein, 
except  as  they  have  been  incidentally  mentioned  above,  since 
nearly  every  one  of  those  interested  in  spreading  and  keeping 
the  Faith  among  the  Hungarian  immigrants  is  still  alive  and 
engaged  in  active  work.  There  is  also  a  slowly  growing  settle- 
ment of  Hungarian  colonists  in  three  provinces  of  British  Can- 
ada, Alberta,  Saskatchewan  and  Manitoba,  with  headquarters 
at  Winnipeg.  Two  of  these  farming  centres  have  been  named 
Esterhaz  and  Kaposvar,  after  towns  in  southwestern  Hun- 
gary. Rev.  M.  Erdujhelyi  undertook  in  1908  to  found  churches 
in  the  country  places  for  them,  but  was  unsuccessful  because 
of  the  great  distances  between  their  respective  settlements. 
The  spiritual  welfare  of  the  Magyar  farmers  and  settlers  has 
been  chiefly  taken  in  charge  by  three  Canadian  born  priests, 
Rev.  Agapite  Page,  Rev.  Joseph  Pirot  and  Rev.  Francis  Wood- 
cutter, who  undertook  to  acquire  the  Hungarian  language  and 
thus  put  themselves  in  close  communication  with  the  immi- 
grant settlers. 


SLAVS  IN  AMERICA 

THE  Slavic  races  have  sent  large  numbers  of  their  people 
to  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  this  immigration 
is  coming  every  year  in  increasing  numbers.  The 
earliest  immigration  began  before  the  war  of  the  States,  but 
within  the  past  thirty  years  it  has  become  so  great  as  quite  to 
overshadow  the  Irish  and  German  immigration  of  the  earlier 
decades.  For  two-thirds  of  that  period  no  accurate  figures  of 
tongues  and  nationalities  were  kept,  the  immigrants  being 
merely  credited  to  the  political  governments  or  countries  from 
which  they  came,  but  within  the  past  twelve  years  more  accu- 
rate data  have  been  preserved.  During  these  years  ( 1899- 
1910)  the  total  immigration  into  the  United  States  has  been 
about  10,000,000  in  round  numbers,  and  of  these  the  Slavs 
have  formed  about  22  per  cent  (actually  2,117,240),  to  say 
nothing  of  the  increase  of  native-born  Slavs  in  this  country 
during  that  period,  as  well  as  the  numbers  of  the  earlier  ar- 
rivals. Reliable  estimates  compiled  from  the  various  racial 
sources  show  that  there  are  from  five  and  a  half  to  six  mil- 
lions of  Slavs  in  the  United  States,  including  the  native-bom 
of  Slavic  parents.  We  are  generally  unaware  of  these  facts, 
because  the  Slavs  are  less  conspicuous  among  us  than  the  Ital- 
ians, Germans,  or  Jews ;  their  languages  and  their  history  are 
unfamiliar  and  remote,  besides  they  are  not  so  massed  in  the 
great  cities  of  this  country. 


I. — Bohemians 

These  people  ought  really  to  be  called  Chekh  {Czech),  but 
are  named  Bohemians  after  the  aboriginal  tribe  of  the  Boii, 
who  dwelt  in  Bohemia  in  Roman  times.  By  a  curious  perver- 
sion of  language,  on  account  of  various  gypsies  who  about 
two  centuries  ago  travelled  westward  across  Bohemia  and 
thereby  came  to  be  known  in  France  as  "Bohemians,"  the 

162 


SLAVS  IN  AMERICA  163 

word  Bohemian  came  into  use  to  designate  one  who  lived  an 
easy,   careless    life,   unhampered    by    serious    responsibilities. 
Such  a  meaning  is,  however,  the  very  antithesis  of  the  serious 
conservative  Chekh  character.    The  names  of  a  few  Bohemians 
are  found  in  the  early  history  of  the  United  States.     Augus- 
tyn  Herman  (1692),  of  Bohemia  Manor,  Maryland,  and  Bed- 
rich  Filip  (Frederick  Philipse,  1702),  of  Philipse  Manor,  Yon- 
kers.  New  York,  are  the  earliest.     In  1848  the  revolutionary 
uprisings  in  Austria  sent  many  Bohemians  to  this  country.    In 
the   eighteenth   century    the    Moravian    Brethren    (Bohemian 
Brethren)  had  come  in  large  numbers.    The  finding  of  gold  in 
CaHfornia  in  1849-50  attracted  many  more,  especially  as  serf- 
dom and  labor  dues  were  abolished  in  Bohemia  at  the  end  of 
1848,  which  left  the  peasant  and  workman  free  to  travel.     In 
1869  and  the  succeeding  years  immigration  was  stimulated  by 
the  labor  strikes  in  Bohemia,  and  on  one  occasion   all  the 
women  workers  of  several  cigar  factories  came  over  and  set- 
tled in  New  York.    About  60  per  cent  of  the  Bohemians  and 
Moravians   who   have   settled   here   are   Catholics,   and   their 
churches  have  been  fairly  maintained.    Their  immigration  dur- 
ing the  past  ten  years  has  been  98,100,  and  in  1910  the  number 
of  Bohemians  in  the  United  States,  immigrants  and  native 
bom,  was  reckoned  at  550,000.     They  have  some  140  Bohe- 
main  Catholic  churches  and  about  250  Bohemian  priests ;  their 
societies,  schools,  and  general  institutions  are  active  and  flour- 
ishing. 

11. — Bulgarians 

This  part  of  the  Slavic  race  inhabits  the  present  Kingdom  of 
Bulgaria,  and  the  Turkish  provinces  of  Eastern  Rumelia,  rep- 
resenting ancient  Macedonia.  Thus  it  happens  that  the  Bul- 
garians are  almost  equally  divided  between  Turkey  and  Bul- 
garia. Their  ancestors  were  the  Bolgars  or  Bulgars,  a  Finnish 
tribe,  which  conquered,  intermarried,  and  coalesced  with  the 
Slav  inhabitants,  and  eventually  gave  their  name  to  them.  The 
Bulgarian  tongue  is  in  many  respects  the  nearest  to  the  Church 
Slavonic,  and  it  was  the  ancient  Bulgarian  which  Sts.  Cyril 
and  Methodius  are  said  to  have  learned  in  order  to  evangelize 
the  pagan  Slavs.  The  modern  Bulgarian  language,  written 
with  Russian  characters  and  a  few  additions,  differs  from  the 


i64  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

other  Slavic  languages  in  that  it,  like  English,  has  lost  nearly 
every  inflection,  and,  like  Rumanian,  has  the  peculiarity  of 
attaching  the  article  to  the  end  of  the  word,  while  the  other 
Slavic  tongues  have  no  article  at  all.  The  Bulgarians  who 
have  gained  their  freedom  from  Turkish  supremacy  in  the 
present  Kingdom  of  Bulgaria  are  fairly  contented ;  but  those  in 
Macedonia  chafe  bitterly  against  Turkish  rule  and  form  a 
large  portion  of  those  who  emigrate  to  America.  The  Bul- 
garians are  nearly  all  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church;  there 
are  some  twenty  thousand  Greek  Catholics,  mostly  in  Mace- 
donia, and  about  50,000  Roman  Catholics.  The  Greek  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  has  always  claimed  jurisdiction  over 
the  Bulgarian  Orthodox  Church,  and  he  enforced  his  jurisdic- 
tion until  1872,  when  the  Bulgarian  exarch  was  appointed  to 
exercise  supreme  jurisdiction.  Since  that  time  the  Bulgarians 
have  been  in  a  state  of  schism  to  the  patriarch.  They  are  ruled 
in  Bulgaria  by  a  Holy  Synod  of  their  own,  whilst  the  Bulgarian 
exarch,  resident  in  Constantinople,  is  the  head  of  the  entire 
Bulgarian  Church.  He  is  recognized  by  the  Russian  Church, 
but  is  considered  excommunicate  by  the  Greek  Patriarch,  who, 
however,  retained  his  authority  over  the  Greek-speaking 
churches  of  Macedonia  and  Bulgaria. 

Bulgarians  came  to  the  United  States  as  early  as  1890;  but 
there  were  then  only  a  few  of  them  as  students,  mostly  from 
Macedonia,  brought  hither  by  mission  bodies  to  study  for  the 
Protestant  ministry.  The  real  immigration  began  in  1905, 
when  it  seems  that  the  Bulgarians  discovered  America  as  a 
land  of  opportunity,  stimulated  probably  by  the  Turkish  and 
Greek  persecutions  then  raging  in  Macedonia  against  them. 
The  railroads  and  steel  works  in  the  West  needed  men,  and 
several  enterprising  steamship  agents  brought  over  Macedo- 
nians and  Bulgarians  in  large  numbers.  Before  1906  there 
were  scarcely  500  to  600  Bulgarians  in  the  country,  and  these 
chiefly  in  St.  Louis,  Missouri.  Since  then  they  have  been  com- 
ing at  the  rate  of  from  8,000  to  10,000  a  year,  until  now  ( 191 1) 
there  are  from  80,000  to  90,000  Bulgarians  scattered  through- 
out the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  majority  of  them  are 
employed  in  factories,  railroads,  mines,  and  sugar  works. 
Granite  City,  Madison  and  Chicago,  Illinois ;  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri ;  Indianapolis,  Indiana ;  Steelton,  Pennsylvania ;  Port- 
land, Oregon,  and  New  York  City  all  have  a  considerable  Bui- 


SLAVS  IN  AMERICA  165 

garian  population.  They  also  take  to  farming  and  are  scat- 
tered throughout  the  north-west.  They  now  (1911)  have  three 
Greek  Orthodox  churches  in  the  United  States,  at  Granite 
City  and  Madison,  Illinois,  and  at  Steelton,  Pennsylvania,  as 
well  as  several  mission  stations.  Their  clergy  consist  of  one 
monk  and  two  secular  priests ;  and  they  also  have  a  church 
at  Toronto,  Canada.  There  are  no  Bulgarian  Catholics,  either 
of  the  Greek  or  Roman  Rite,  sufficient  to  form  a  church  here. 
The  Bulgarians,  unlike  the  other  Slavs,  have  no  church  or 
benefit  societies  or  brotherhoods  in  America.  They  publish 
five  Bulgarian  papers,  of  which  the  "Naroden  Glas,"  of  Gran- 
ite City,  is  the  most  important. 


III. — Croatians 

These  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  autonomous  or  home-rule 
province  of  Croatia-Slavonia,  in  the  south-western  part  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Hungary,  where  it  reaches  down  to  the  Adriatic 
Sea.  It  includes  not  only  them,  but  also  the  Slavic  inhabitants 
of  Istria  and  Dalmatia,  in  Austria,  and  those  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  who  are  Catholic  and  use  the  Roman  alphabet.  In 
blood  and  speech  the  Croatians  and  Servians  are  practically 
one ;  but  religion  and  politics  divide  them.  The  former  are 
Roman  Catholics  and  use  the  Roman  letters ;  the  latter  are 
Greek  Orthodox  and  use  modified  Russian  letters.  In  many 
of  the  places  on  the  border-line  school  children  have  to  learn 
both  alphabets.  The  English  word  "cravat"  is  derived  from 
their  name,  it  being  the  Croatian  neckpiece  which  the  south 
Austrian  troops  wore.  Croatia-Slavonia  itself  has  a  popula- 
tion of  nearly  2,500,000  and  is  about  one-third  the  size  of  the 
State  of  New  York.  Croatia  in  the  west  is  mountainous  and 
somewhat  poor,  while  Slavonia  in  the  east  is  level,  fertile  and 
productive.  Many  Dalmatian  Croats  from  seaport  towns  came 
here  from  1850  to  1870.  The  original  emigration  from  Croa- 
tia-Slavonia began  in  1873,  upon  the  completion  of  the  new 
railway  connections  to  the  seaport  of  Fiume,  when  some  of 
the  more  adventurous  Croatians  came  to  the  United  States. 
From  the  early  eighties  the  Lipa-Krbava  district  furnished 
much  of  the  emigration.  The  first  Croatian  settlements  were 
made  in  Calumet,  Michigan,  while  many  of  them  became  lum- 


i66  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

bermen  in  Michigan  and  stave-cutters  along  the  Mississippi. 
Around  Agram  (Zagrab,  the  Croatian  capital)  the  grape  dis- 
ease caused  large  destruction  of  vineyards  and  the  consequent 
emigration  of  thousands.  Later  on  emigration  began  from 
Varasdin  and  from  Slavonia  also,  and  now  immigrants  arrive 
from  every  county  in  Croatia-Slavonia.  In  1899  the  figures 
for  Croatia-Slavonia  were  2,923,  and  by  1907  the  annual  im- 
migration had  risen  to  22,828,  the  largest  number  coming  from 
Agram  and  Varasdin  counties.  Since  then  it  has  fallen  ofif, 
and  at  the  present  time  (1911)  it  is  not  quite  20,000.  Un- 
fortunately the  governmental  statistics  do  not  separate  the 
Slovenians  from  the  Croatians  in  giving  the  arrivals  of  Austro- 
Hungarian  immigrants,  but  the  Hungarian  figures  of  depart- 
ures serve  as  checks. 

The  number  of  Croatians  in  the  United  States  at  present, 
including  the  native-born,  is  about  280,000,  divided  according 
to  their  origin  as  follows:  from  Croatia-Slavonia,  160,000; 
Dalmatia,  80,000;  Bosnia,  20,000;  Herzegovina,  15,000;  and 
the  remainder  from  various  parts  of  Hungary  and  Servia. 
The  largest  group  of  them  is  in  Pennsylvania,  chiefly  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Pittsburgh,  and  they  number  probably  from 
80,000  to  100,000.  Illinois  has  about  45,000,  chiefly  in  Chicago. 
Ohio  has  about  35,000,  principally  in  Cleveland  and  the  vicin- 
ity. Other  considerable  colonies  are  in  New  York,  San  Fran- 
cisco, St.  Louis,  Kansas  City  and  New  Orleans.  They  are  also 
in  Montana,  Colorado  and  Michigan.  The  Dalmatians  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  business  and  grape  culture ;  the  other  Croa- 
tians are  mostly  laborers  employed  in  mining,  railroad  work, 
steel  mills,  stockyards  and  stone  quarries.  Nearly  all  of  these 
are  Catholics,  and  they  now  have  one  Greek  Catholic  and  six- 
teen Roman  Catholic  churches  in  the  United  States.  The  Greek 
Catholics  are  almost  wholly  from  the  Diocese  of  Krizevac 
(Crisium),  and  are  chiefly  settled  at  Chicago  and  Cleveland. 
They  have  some  250  societies  devoted  to  church  and  patriotic 
purposes,  and  in  some  cases  to  Socialism,  but  as  yet  they  have 
no  very  large  central  organization,  the  National  Croatian  Union 
with  29,247  members  being  the  largest.  They  publish  ten 
newspapers,  among  them  two  dailies,  of  which  "Zajednicar," 
the  organ  of  Narodne  Hrvatske  Zajednice  (National  Croatian 
Union),  is  the  best  known. 


SLAVS  IN  AMERICA  167 


IV.— Poles 

The  Poles  came  to  the  United  States  quite  early  in  its  his- 
tory. Aside  from  some  few  early  settlers,  the  American  Revo- 
lution attracted  such  noted  men  as  Kosciusko  and  Pulaski,  to- 
gether with  many  of  their  fellow-countrymen.  The  Polish 
Revolution  of  1830  brought  numbers  of  Poles  to  the  United 
States.  In  185 1  a  Polish  colony  settled  in  Texas,  and  called 
their  settlement  Panna  Marya  (Our  Lady  Mary).  In  i860 
they  settled  at  Parisville,  Michigan,  and  Polonia,  Wisconsin. 
Many  distinguished  Poles  served  in  the  Civil  War  (1861-65) 
upon  both  sides.  After  1873  the  Polish  immigration  began  to 
grow  apace,  chiefly  from  Prussian  Poland.  Then  the  tide 
turned  and  came  from  Austria,  and  later  from  Russian  Poland. 
In  1890  they  began  to  come  in  the  greatest  numbers  from 
Austrian  and  Russian  Poland,  until  the  flow  from  German 
Poland  has  largely  diminished.  The  immigration  within  the 
past  ten  years  has  been  as  follows :  from  Russia,  53  per  cent ; 
from  Austria  about  43  per  cent;  and  only  a  fraction  over  4 
per  cent  from  the  Prussian  or  German  portion.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  there  are  at  present  about  3,000,000  Poles  in  the 
United  States,  counting  the  native-born.  It  may  be  said  that 
they  are  almost  solidly  Catholic;  the  dissident  and  disturbing 
elements  among  them  being  but  comparatively  small,  while 
there  is  no  purely  Protestant  element  at  all.  They  have  one 
Polish  bishop,  about  750  priests,  and  some  520  churches  and 
chapels,  besides  335  schools.  There  are  large  numbers,  both 
men  and  women,  who  are  members  of  the  various  religious 
communities.  The  Poles  publish  some  70  newspapers, 
amongst  them  nine  dailies,  20  of  which  are  purely  Catholic 
publications.  Their  religious  and  national  societies  are  large 
and  flourishing;  and  altogether  the  Polish  element  is  active 
and  progressive. 

V, — Russians 

The  Russian  Empire  is  the  largest  nation  in  Europe,  and 
its  Slavic  inhabitants  (exclusive  of  Poles)  are  composed  of 
Great  Russians  or  Northern  Russians,  White  Russians  or 
Western  Russians,  and  the  Little  Russians   (Ruthenians)  or 


i68  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Southern  Russians.  The  Great  Russians  dwell  in  the  central 
and  northern  parts  of  the  empire  around  Moscow  and  St. 
Petersburg,  and  are  so  called  in  allusion  to  their  stature  and 
great  predominance  in  number,  government,  and  language. 
The  White  Russians  are  so  called  from  the  prevailing  color 
of  the  clothing  of  the  peasantry,  and  inhabit  the  provinces 
lying  on  the  borders  of  Poland— Vitebsk,  Mohileff,  Minsk, 
Vilna,  and  Grodno.  Their  language  differs  but  slightly  from 
Great  Russian,  inclining  towards  Polish  and  Old  Slavonic. 
The  Little  Russians  (so  called  from  their  low  stature)  differ 
considerably  from  the  Great  Russians  in  language  and  cus- 
toms, and  they  inhabit  the  Provinces  of  Kieff,  Kharkoff, 
Tchernigoff,  Poltava,  Podolia,  and  Volhynia,  and  they  are 
also  found  outside  the  Empire  of  Russia  in  Galicia,  Bukovina, 
and  Hungary.  The  Great  Russians  may  be  regarded  as 
the  norm  of  the  Russian  people.  Their  language  became 
the  language  of  the  court  and  of  literature,  just  as  High  Ger- 
man and  Tuscan  Italian  did,  and  they  form  the  overwhelming 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Russian  Empire.  They 
are  practically  all  Greek  Orthodox,  the  Catholics  in  Russia 
being  Poles  or  Germans  where  they  are  of  the  Roman  Rite, 
and  Little  Russians  (Ruthenians)  where  they  are  of  the  Greek 

Rite. 

The  Russians  have  long  been  settled  in  America,  for  Alaska 
was  Russian  territory  before  it  was  purchased  by  the  United 
States  in  1867.  The  Russian  Greek  Orthodox  Church  has 
been  on  American  soil  for  over  a  century.  The  immigration 
from  Russia  is  however  composed  of  very  few  Russians.  It 
is  principally  made  up  of  Jews  (Russian  and  Polish),  Poles, 
and  Lithuanians.  Out  of  an  average  emigration  of  from  250,- 
000  to  260,000  annually  from  the  Russian  Empire  to  the 
United  States,  65  per  cent  have  been  Jews  and  only  from  three 
to  five  per  cent  actual  Russians.  Nevertheless  the  Russian 
peasant  and  working  class  are  active  emigrants,  and  the 
exodus  from  European  Russia  is  relatively  large.  But  it  is 
directed  eastward  instead  of  to  the  west,  for  Russia  is  intent 
upon  settling  up  her  vast  prairie  lands  in  Siberia.  Hindrances 
are  placed  in  the  way  of  those  Russians  (except  the  Jews) 
who  would  leave  for  America  or  the  west  of  Europe,  while 
inducements  and  advantages  are  offered  for  settlers  in  Si- 
beria.    For  the  past  five  years  about  500,000  Russians  have 


SLAVS  IN  AMERICA  169 

annually  migrated  to  Siberia,  a  number  equal  to  one-half  the 
immigrants  yearly  received  by  the  United  States  from  all 
sources.  They  go  in  great  colonies  and  are  aided  by  the  Rus- 
sian Government  by  grants  of  land,  loans  of  money,  and  low 
transportation.  New  towns  and  cities  have  sprung  up  all 
over  Siberia,  which  are  not  even  on  our  maps,  thus  rivalling 
the  American  settlement  of  the  Dakotas  and  the  North-West. 
Many  Russian  religious  colonists,  other  than  the  Jews,  have 
come  to  America ;  but  often  they  are  not  wholly  of  Slavic 
blood  or  are  Little  Russians  (Ruthenians).  It  therefore  hap- 
pens that  there  are  very  few  Russians  in  the  United  States 
as  compared  with  other  nationalities.  There  are,  according 
to  the  latest  estimates,  about  75,000,  chiefly  in  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Middle  West.  There  has  been  a  Russian  colony  in 
San  Francisco  for  sixty  years,  and  they  are  numerous  in  and 
around  New  York  City. 

The  Russian  Orthodox  Church  is  well  established  here. 
About  a  third  of  the  Russians  in  the  United  States  are  op- 
posed to  it,  being  of  the  anti-government,  semi-revolutionary 
type  of  immigrant.  But  the  others  are  enthusiastic  in  support 
of  their  Church  and  their  national  customs,  yet  their  Church 
includes  not  only  them  but  the  Little  Russians  of  Bukovina 
and  a  very  large  number  of  Greek  Catholics  of  Galicia  and 
Hungary  whom  they  have  induced  to  leave  the  Catholic  and 
enter  the  Orthodox  Church.  The  Russian  Church  in  the 
United  States  is  endowed  by  the  Tsar  and  the  Holy  Governing 
Synod,  besides  having  the  support  of  Russian  missionary 
societies  at  home,  and  is  upon  a  flourishing  financial  basis  in 
the  United  States.  It  now  (1911)  has  83  churches  and  chapels 
in  the  United  States,  15  in  Alaska,  and  18  in  Canada,  making 
a  total  of  126  places  of  worship,  besides  a  theological  semi- 
nary at  Minneapolis  and  a  monastery  at  South  Canaan,  Penn- 
sylvania. Their  present  clergy  is  composed  of  one  archbishop, 
one  bishop,  6  proto-priests,  89  secular  priests,  2  archimand- 
rites, 2  hegumens,  and  18  monastic  priests,  making  a  total 
of  119,  while  they  also  exercise  jurisdiction  over  the  Servian 
and  Syrian  Orthodox  clergy  besides.  Lately  they  took  over 
a  Greek  Catholic  sisterhood,  and  now  have  four  Basilian  nuns. 
The  United  States  is  now  divided  up  into  the  following  six 
districts  of  the  Russian  Church,  intended  to  be  the  territory 
for  future  dioceses :  New  York  and  the  New  England  States ; 


170  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Pennsylvania  and  the  Atlantic  States ;  Pittsburgh  and  the  Mid- 
dle West ;  Western  Pacific  States  ;  Canada,  and  Alaska.  Their 
statistics  of  church  population  have  not  been  published  lately 
in  their  year-books,  and  much  of  their  growth  has  been  of 
late  years  by  additions  gained  from  the  Greek  Catholic 
Ruthenians  of  Galicia  and  Hungary,  and  is  due  largely  to  the 
active  and  energetic  work  and  financial  support  of  the  Russian 
church  authorities  at  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow. 

They  have  the  "Russkoye  Pravoslavnoye  Obshchestvo 
Vzaimopomoshchi"  (Russian  Orthodox  Mutual  Aid  Society) 
for  men,  founded  in  1895,  ^ow  (1911)  having  199  councils 
and  7,072  members,  and  the  women's  division  of  the  same, 
founded  in  1907,  with  32  councils  and  690  members.  They 
publish  two  church  papers,  "American  Orthodox  Messenger," 
and  "Svit" ;  although  there  are  some  nine  other  Russian  papers 
published  by  Jews  and  Socialists. 


VI. — Ruthenians 

These  are  the  southern  branch  of  the  Russian  family,  ex- 
tending from  the  middle  of  Austria-Hungary  across  the  south- 
ern part  of  Russia.  The  use  of  the  adjective  russky  by  both 
the  Ruthenians  and  the  Russians  permits  it  to  be  translated 
into  English  by  the  word  "Ruthenian"  or  "Russian."  They 
are  also  called  Little  Russians  (Malorossiani)  in  the  Empire 
of  Russia,  and  sometimes  Russniaki  in  Hungary.  The  ap- 
pellations "Little  Russians"  and  "Ruthenians"  have  come  to 
have  almost  a  technical  meaning,  the  former  indicating  sub- 
jects of  the  Russian  Empire  who  are  of  the  Greek  Orthodox 
Church,  and  the  latter  those  who  are  in  Austria-Hungary  and 
are  Catholics  of  the  Greek  Rite.  Those  who  are  active  in  the 
Panslavic  movement  and  are  Russophiles  are  very  anxious 
to  have  them  called  "Russians,"  no  matter  whence  they  come, 
The  Ruthenians  are  of  the  original  Russo-Slavic  race,  and 
gave  their  name  to  the  peoples  making  up  the  present  Russian 
Empire.  They  are  spread  all  over  the  southern  part  of  Rus- 
sia, in  the  provinces  of  Kieflf,  KharkoflF,  Tchernigoff,  Poltava, 
Podolia,  and  Volhynia,  but  by  force  of  governmental  pres- 
sure and  restrictive  laws  are  being  slowly  made  into  Great 
Russians.    Only  within  the  past  five  years  has  the  use  of  their 


SLAVS  IN  AMERICA  171 

own  form  of  language  and  their  own  newspapers  and  press 
been  allowed  by  law  in  Russia.  Nearly  every  Ruthenian 
author  in  the  empire  has  written  his  chief  works  in  Great 
Russian,  because  denied  the  use  of  his  own  language.  They 
are  also  spread  throughout  the  Provinces  of  Lublin,  in  Poland; 
Galicia  and  Bukovina,  in  Austria ;  and  the  Counties  of  Szepes, 
Saros,  Abauj,  Zemplin,  Ung,  Marmos,  and  Bereg,  in  Hun- 
gary. They  have  had  an  opportunity  to  develop  in  Austria 
and  also  in  Hungary.  In  the  latter  country  they  are  closely 
allied  with  the  Slovaks,  and  many  of  them  speak  the  Slovak 
language.  They  are  all  of  the  Greek  Rite,  and  with  the  except- 
tion  of  those  in  Russia  and  Bukovina  are  Catholics.  They 
use  the  Russian  alphabet  for  their  language,  and  in  Bukovina 
and  a  portion  of  Galicia  have  a  phonetic  spelHng,  thus  differ- 
ing largely  from  Great  Russian,  even  in  words  that  are  com- 
mon to  both. 

Their  immigration  to  America  commenced  in  1880  as  la- 
borers in  the  coal  mines  of  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  and  has 
steadily  increased  ever  since.  Although  they  were  the  poorest 
class  of  peasants  and  laborers,  illiterate  for  the  most  part 
and  unable  to  grasp  the  English  language  or  American  cus- 
toms when  they  arrived,  they  have  rapidly  risen  in  the  scale  of 
prosperity  and  are  now  rivalling  the  other  nationalities  in 
progress.  Greek  Ruthenian  churches  and  institutions  are 
being  established  upon  a  substantial  basis,  and  their  clergy  and 
schools  are  steadily  advancing.  They  are  scattered  all  over 
the  United  States,  and  there  are  now  (1911)  between  480,000 
and  500,000  of  them,  counting  immigrants  and  native  born. 
Their  immigration  for  the  past  five  years  has  been  as  fol- 
lows:  1907,  24,081;  1908,  12,361;  1909,  15,808;  1910,  27,907; 
191 1,  17,724;  being  an  average  of  20,000  a  year.  They  have 
chiefly  settled  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  over  half  of  them 
being  there ;  but  Ohio,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Illinois 
have  large  numbers  of  them.  The  Greek  Rite  in  the  Slavonic 
language  is  firmly  established  through  them  in  the  United 
States,  but  they  suffer  greatly  from  Russian  Orthodox  en- 
deavors to  lead  them  from  the  Catholic  Church,  as  well  as 
from  frequent  internal  dissensions  (chiefly  of  an  old-world 
political  nature)  among  themselves.  They  have  152  Greek 
Catholic  churches,  with  a  Greek  clergy  consisting  of  a  Greek 
Catholic  bishop  who  has  his  seat  at  Philadelphia,  but  with- 


172  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

out  diocesan  powers  as  yet,  and  127  priests,  of  whom  9  are 
Basilian  monks.  During  191 1  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  nuns 
of  the  Order  of  St.  Basil  were  introduced.  The  Ruthenians 
have  flourishing  religious  mutual  benefit  societies,  which  also 
assist  in  the  building  of  Greek  churches.  The  "Soyedineniya 
Greko-Katolicheskikh  Bratstv"  (Greek  Catholic  Union)  in 
its  senior  division  has  509  brotherhoods  or  councils  and  30,255 
members,  while  the  junior  division  has  226  brotherhoods  and 
15,200  members;  the  "Russky  Narodny  Soyus"  (Ruthenian 
National  Union)  has  301  brotherhoods  and  15,200  members; 
while  the  "Obshchestvo  Russkikh  Bratstv"  (Society  of  Rus- 
sian Brotherhood)  has  129  brotherhoods  and  7,350  members. 
There  are  also  many  Ruthenians  who  belong  to  Slovak  or- 
ganizations. The  Ruthenians  publish  some  ten  papers,  of 
which  the  "Amerikansky  Russky  Viestnil,"  "Svoboda,"  and 
*'Dushpastyr"  are  the  principal  ones. 


VII. — Servians 

This  designation  applies  not  only  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Servia,  but  includes  the  people  of  the  following 
countries    forming   a    geographical    although    not    a   political 
whole :  southern  Hungary,  the  Kingdoms  of  Servia  and  Mon- 
tenegro, the  Turkish  Provinces  of  Kossovo,  Western  Mace- 
donia and  Novi-Bazar.  and  the  annexed  Austrian  provinces 
of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.     The  last  two  provinces  may  be 
said  to  furnish  the  shadowy  boundary  line  between  the  Croa- 
tians  and  the  Servians.     The  two  peoples  are  ethnologically 
the  same,  and  the  Servian  and  Croatian  languages  are  merely 
two  dialects  of  the  same  Slavic  tongue.     Servians  are  some- 
times called  the  Shtokavski,  because  the   Servian  word   for 
"what"  is  shto,  while  the  Croats  use  the  word  cha  for  "what," 
and    Croatians    are    called    Chakavski.     The    Croatians    are 
Roman    Catholics    and   use   the   Roman    alphabet    (latinica), 
whilst  the  Servians  are  Greek  Orthodox  and  use  the  Cyrillo- 
Russian  alphabet   (cirilica),  with  additional  signs  to  express 
special  sounds  not  found  in  the  Russian.     Servians  who  hap- 
pen to  be  Roman  Catholics  are  called  Bunjevaci  (disturbers, 
dissenters). 

Servian  immigration  to  the  United  States  did  not  commence 


SLAVS  IN  AMERICA  173 

until  about  1892,  when  several  hundred  Montenegrins  and 
Servians  came  with  the  Dalmatians  and  settled  in  California. 
It  began  to  increase  largely  in  1903  and  was  at  its  highest  in 
1907.  They  are  largely  settled  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
Illinois.  There  are  no  governmental  statistics  showing  how 
many  Servians  come  from  Servia  and  how  many  from  the 
surrounding  provinces.  The  Servian  Government  has  estab- 
lished a  special  consular  office  in  New  York  City  to  look  after 
Servian  immigration.  There  are  now  (1911)  about  150,000 
Servians  in  the  United  States.  They  are  located  as  follows : 
New  England  States,  25,000;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  50,000; 
Middle  Western  States,  25,000;  Western  and  Pacific  States, 
25,000;  and  the  remainder  throughout  the  Southern  States 
and  Alaska.  They  have  brought  with  them  their  Orthodox 
clergy,  and  are  at  present  affiliated  with  the  Russian  Orthodox 
Church  here,  although  they  expect  shortly  to  have  their  own 
national  bishop.  They  now  (1911)  have  in  the  United  States 
20  churches  (of  which  five  are  in  Pennsylvania)  and  14 
clergy,  of  whom  8  are  monks  and  6  seculars.  They  publish 
eight  newspapers  in  Servian,  of  which  "Amerikanski  Srbo- 
bran,"  of  Pittsburgh,  "Srbobran,"  of  New  York,  and  "Srpski 
Glasnik,"  of  San  Francisco,  are  the  most  important.  They 
have  a  large  number  of  church  and  patriotic  societies,  of  which 
the  Serb  Federation  "Sloga"  (Concord)  with  131  drustva  or 
councils  and  over  10,000  members  and  "Prosvjeta"  (Prog- 
ress), composed  of  Servians  from  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina, 
are  the  most  prominent. 

VIII. — Slovaks 

These  occupy  the  north-western  portion  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Hungary  upon  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Carpathian  moun- 
tains, ranging  over  a  territory  comprising  the  Counties  of 
Poszony,  Nyitra,  Bars,  Hont,  Zolyom,  Trencsen,  Turocz, 
Arva,  Lipto,  Szepes,  Saros,  Zemplin,  Ung,  Albauj,  Gomor, 
and  Nograd.  A  well-defined  ethnical  line  is  all  that  di- 
vides the  Slovaks  from  the  Ruthenians  and  the  Magyars. 
Their  language  is  almost  the  same  as  the  Bohemian,  for 
they  received  their  literature  and  their  mode  of  writing 
it  from  the  Bohemians,  and  even  now  nearly  all  the 
Protestant   Slovak  literature   is   from   Bohemian   sources.     It 


174  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  Bohemians  and  Mora- 
vians dwell  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Carpathian  moun- 
tains in  Austria,  whilst  the  Slovaks  are  on  the  south  of  the 
Carpathians  and  are  wholly  in  Hungary.  Between  the  Mora- 
vians and  the  Slovaks,  dwelling  so  near  to  one  another,  the 
relationship  was  especially  close.  The  Slovak  and  the 
Moravian  people  were  among  those  who  first  heard  the  story 
of  Christ  from  the  Slavonic  apostles  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius, 
and  at  one  time  their  tribes  must  have  extended  down  to  the 
Danube  and  the  southern  Slavs.  The  Magyars  (Hungarians) 
came  in  from  Asia  and  the  East,  and  like  a  wedge  divided 
this  group  of  northern  Slavs  from  those  on  the  south. 

The  Slovaks  have  had  no  independent  history  and  have  en- 
dured successively  Polish  rule,  Magyar  conquest,  Tatar  in- 
vasions, German  invading  colonization,  Hussite  raids  from 
Bohemia,  and  the  dynastic  wars  of  Hungary.  In  1848-49, 
when  revolution  and  rebellion  were  in  the  air,  the  Hungarians 
began  their  war  against  Austria ;  the  Slovaks  in  turn  rose 
against  the  Hungarians  for  their  language  and  national  cus- 
toms, but  on  the  conclusion  of  peace  they  were  again  incor- 
porated as  part  of  Hungary  without  any  of  their  rights  recog- 
nized. Later  they  were  ruthlessly  put  down  when  they 
refused  to  carry  out  the  Hungarian  decrees,  particularly  as 
they  had  rallied  to  the  support  of  the  Austrian  throne.  In 
1861  the  Slovaks  presented  their  famous  Memorandum  to  the 
Imperial  Throne  of  Austria,  praying  for  a  bill  of  rights  and 
for  their  autonomous  nationality.  Stephen  Moyses,  the  dis- 
tinguished Slovak  Catholic  bishop,  besought  the  emperor  to 
grant  national  and  language  rights  to  them.  The  whole  move- 
ment awoke  popular  enthusiasm.  Catholics  and  Protestants 
working  together  for  the  common  good.  In  1862  high  schools 
were  opened  for  Slovaks ;  the  famous  "Slovenska  Matica," 
to  publish  Slovak  books  and  works  of  art  and  to  foster  the 
study  of  the  Slovak  history  and  language,  was  founded ;  and 
in  1870  the  Catholics  also  founded  the  "Society  of  St.  Voy- 
tech,"  which  became  a  powerful  helper.  Slovak  newspapers 
sprang  into  existence  and  150  reading  clubs  and  libraries  were 
established.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Austrian  arms  at  Sadowa 
in  1866,  pressure  was  resumed  to  split  the  empire  into  two 
parts,  Austrian  and  Hungarian,  each  of  which  was  prac- 
tically independent.     The   Slovaks  thenceforth   came  wholly 


SLAVS  IN  AMERICA  175 

under  Hungarian  rule.  Then  the  Law  of  Nationalities  was 
passed  which  recognized  the  predominant  position  of  the 
Magyars,  but  gave  some  small  recognition  to  the  other  minor 
nationalities,  such  as  the  Slovaks,  by  allowing  them  to  have 
churches  and  schools  conducted  in  their  own  language. 

In  1878  the  active  Magyarization  of  Hungary  was  under- 
taken.    The  doctrine  was  mooted  that  a  native  of  the  King- 
dom  of   Hungary   could   not   be   a   patriot   unless   he   spoke, 
thought,  and  felt  as  a  Magyar.     A  Slovak  of  education  who 
remained  true  to  his  ancestry    (and  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  Slovaks  were  there  long  before  the  Hungarians  came) 
was  considered  deficient  in  patriotism.     The  most  advanced 
political  view  was  that  a  compromise  with  the  Slovaks  was 
impossible;  that  there  was  but  one  expedient,  to  wipe  them 
out   as    far    as   possible   by   assimilation    with    the    Magyars. 
Slovak  schools  and  institutions  were  ordered  to  be  closed,  the 
charter  of  the  "Matica"  was  annulled,  and  its  library  and  rich 
historical  and  artistic  collections,  as  well  as  its  funds,  were 
confiscated.     Inequalities  of  every  kind  before  the  law  were 
devised  for  the  undoing  of  the  Slovaks  and  turning  them  into 
Hungarians;   so  much   so   that  one  of  their  authors   likened 
them  to  the  Irish  in  their  troubles.     The  Hungarian  authori- 
ties in  their  endeavor  to  suppress  the  Slovak  nationality  went 
even   to    the   extent   of   taking   away    Slovak    children   to   be 
brought  up  as  Magyars,  and  forbade  them  to  use  their  lan- 
guage in  school  and  church.     The  2,000,000  Catholic  Slovaks 
clung  to  their   language  and   Slavic  customs,  but  the  clergy 
were  educated  in  their  seminaries  through  the  medium  of  the 
Magyar  tongue  and  required  in  their  parishes  to  conform  to 
the  state  idea.     Among  the  750,000  Protestant  Slovaks  the 
Government   went   even    further  by   taking   control   of    their 
synods  and  bishops.    Even  Slovak  family  names  were  changed 
to  Hungarian  ones,  and  preferment  was  only  through  Hun- 
garian channels.     Naturally,  religion  decayed  under  the  stress 
and  strain  of  repressed  nationality.     Slovak  priests  did  not 
perform   their   duties   with   ardor   or   diligence,   but   confined 
themselves  to  the  mere  routine  of  canonical  obligation.    There 
are  no  monks  or  religious  orders  among  the  Slovaks  and  no 
provision  is  made  for  any  kind  of  community  life.  Catechetical 
instruction  is  at  a  minimum  and  is  required  to  be  given  when- 
ever possible  through  the  medium  of  the  Hungarian  language. 


176  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

There  is  no  lack  of  priests  in  the  Slovak  country,  yet  the 
practice  of  solemnizing  the  reception  of  the  first  communion 
by  the  children  is  unknown  and  many  other  forms  of  Catholic 
devotion  are  omitted.  Even  the  Holy  Rosary  Society  was  dis- 
solved, because  its  devotions  and  proceedings  were  conducted 
in  Slovak.  The  result  of  governmental  restriction  of  any 
national  expression  has  been  a  complete  lack  of  initiative  on 
the  part  of  the  Slovak  priesthood,  and  it  is  needless  to  speak 
of  the  result  upon  their  flocks.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Slovak  territory  where  there  were  Slovak-speaking  Greek 
Catholics,  they  fared  slightly  better  in  regard  to  the  attempts 
to  make  them  Hungarians.  There  the  liturgy  was  Slavonic 
and  the  clergy  who  used  the  Magyar  tongue  still  were  in 
close  touch  with  their  people  through  the  offices  of  the  Church. 
All  this  pressure  on  the  part  of  the  authorities  tended  to  pro- 
duce an  active  Slovak  emigration  to  America,  while  bad  har- 
vests and  taxation  also  contributed. 

A  few  immigrants  came  to  America  in  1864  and  their  suc- 
cess brought  others.     In  the  late  seventies  the  Slovak  exodus 
was  well  marked,  and  by  1882  it  was  sufficiently  important  to 
be  investigated  by   the  Hungarian   Minister  of  the   Interior 
and  directions  given  to  repress  it.     The  American  immigra- 
tion figures  indicate  the  first  important  Slovak  influx  in  1873 
when   1300  immigrants  came  from  Hungary,  which   rose   to 
4000  in  1880  and  to  nearly  15,000  in  1884,  most  of  them  set- 
tling in  the  mining  and  industrial   regions  of   Pennsylvania. 
At  first   they   came   from  the   Counties   of   Zemplin,    Saros, 
Szepes,  and  Ung,  where  there  were  also  many  Ruthenians. 
They  were  called  "Huns"  or  "Hunkies,"  and  were  used  at 
first  to  fill  the  places  left  vacant  by  strikers.     They  were  very 
poor  and  willing  to  work  for  little  when  they  arrived,  and 
were  accordingly  hated  by  the  members  of  the  various  unions. 
The  Slovak  girls,  like  the  Irish,  mostly  went  into  service,  and 
because  they  had  almost  no  expense  for  living  managed  to 
earn  more  than  the  men.    To-day  the  Slovaks  of  x\merica  are 
beginning  to  possess  a  national  culture  and  organization,  which 
presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the  cramped  development  of 
their  kinsmen  in  Hungary.     Their  immigration  of  late  years 
has  ranged  annually  from  52,368  in  1905  to  33,416  in   1910. 
Altogether  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  now  some  560,000 
Slovaks  in  the  United  States,  including  the  native  born.    They 


SLAVS  IN  AMERICA  177 

are  spread  throug-hout  the  country,  chiefly  in  the  following 
States:  Pennsylvania,  270,000;  Ohio,  75,000;  lUinois,  50,000; 
New  Jersey,  50,000;  New  York,  35,000;  Connecticut,  20,000; 
Indiana,  15,000;  Missouri,  10,000;  whilst  they  range  from 
5,000  to  a  few  hundreds  in  the  other  States.  About  450,000 
of  them  are  Roman  Catholics,  10,000  Greek  Catholics  and 
95,000  Protestants. 

The  first  Slovak  Catholic  church  in  the  United  States  was 
founded  by  Rev.  Joseph  Kossalko  at  Streator,  Illinois,  and 
was  dedicated  8  Dec,  1883.     Following  this  he  also  built  St. 
Joseph's  Church  at  Hazleton,  Pennsylvania,  in  1884.     In  1889 
Rev.  Stephen  Furdek  founded  the  Church  of  St.  Ladislas  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  together  with  a  fine  parochial  school,  both 
of  which  were  dedicated  by  Bishop  Gilmour.     The  American 
bishops  were  anxious  to  get  Slovak  priests  for  the  increasing 
immigration,    and    Bishop    Gilmour    sent    Father    Furdek    to 
Hungary  for  that  purpose.     The  Hungarian  bishops  were  un- 
willing to  send  Slovak  priests  at  first,  but  as  immigration  in- 
creased they  acceded  to  the  request.     At  present  (1911)  the 
Catholic  Slovaks  have  a  clergy  consisting  of  one  bishop  (Rt. 
Rev.  J.  M.  Koudelka)  and  104  priests,  and  have  134  churches 
situated  as  follows:  in  Pennsylvania,  81  (Dioceses  of  Altoona, 
10;  Erie,  4;  Harrisburg,  3;  Philadelphia,  15;  Pittsburgh,  35; 
and  Scranton,  14)  ;  in  Ohio,  14  (in  the  Diocese  of  Cleveland, 
12,  and  Columbus,  2)  ;  in  Illinois,  10  (in  the  Archdiocese  of 
Chicago,  7;  and  Peoria,  3)  ;  in  New  Jersey,  11   (in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Newark,  7;  and  Trenton,  4);  in  New  York,  6;  and 
in  the  States  of  Connecticut,  3 ;  Indiana,  2 ;  Wisconsin,  2 ;  and 
Minnesota,  Michigan,  Missouri,  Alabama,  and  West  Virginia, 
one  each.    Some  of  the  Slovak  church  buildings  are  very  fine 
specimens  of  church  architecture.     There  are  also  36  Slovak 
parochial  schools,  that  of  Our  Lady  Mary  in  Cleveland  having 
750  pupils.    They  have  also  introduced  an  American  order  of 
Slovak  nuns,  the  Sisters  of  Saints  Cyril  and  Methodius,  who 
are  established  under  the  direction  of  Bishop  Hoban  in  the 
Diocese  of  Scranton,  where  they  have  four  schools. 

The  Protestant  Slovaks  followed  the  example  of  the  Catho- 
lics and  established  their  first  church  at  Streator,  Illinois,  in 
1885,  and  later  founded  a  church  at  Minneapolis,  in  1888,  and 
from  1890  to  1894  three  churches  in  Pennsylvania.  They  now 
have  in  the  United  States  60  Slovak  churches  and  congrega- 


178  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

tions  (of  which  28  are  in  Pennsylvania),  with  34  ministers  (not 
including  some  5  Presbyterian  clergymen),  who  are  organized 
under  the  name  of  "The  Slovak  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod 
of  America."  The  Slovaks  have  a  large  number  of  organiza- 
tions. The  principal  Catholic  ones  are :  Prva  Katolicka  Slo- 
venska  Jednota  (First  Slovak  Catholic  Union),  for  men,  33,- 
000  members ;  Pennsylvanska  Slovenska  Rimsko  a  Grecko 
Katolicka  Jednota  (Pennsylvania  Slovak  Roman  and  Greek 
Catholic  Union),  7,500  members;  Prva  Katolicka  Slovenska 
Zenska  Jednota  (First  Catholic  Slovak  Women's  Union),  12,- 
000  members ;  Pennsylvanska  Slovenska  2enska  Jednota 
(Pennsylvania  Slovak  Women's  Union),  3,500  members ;  2i- 
vena  (Women's  League),  6,000  members.  There  are  also: 
Narodny  Slovensky  Spolok  (National  Slovak  Society),  which 
takes  in  all  Slovaks  except  Jews,  28,000  members ;  Evanjelicka 
Slovenska  Jednota  (Evangelical  Lutheran  Slovak  Union), 
8,000  members;  Kalvinska  Slovenska  Jednota  (Presbyterian 
Slovak  Union),  1,000  members  ;  Neodvisly  Narodny  Slovensky 
Spolok  (Independent  National  Slovak  Society),  2,000  mem- 
bers. They  also  have  a  large  and  enterprising  Press,  publish- 
ing some  fourteen  papers.  The  chief  ones  are:  "Slovensky 
Dennik"  (Slovak  Journal),  a  daily,  of  Pittsburgh;  "Slovak  v 
Amerike"  (Slovak  in  America),  of  New  York;  "Narodne  No- 
viny"  (National  News),  a  weekly,  of  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania, 
with  38,000  circulation  ;  "Jednota"  (The  Union),  also  a  weekly, 
of  Middletown,  Pennsylvania,  with  35,000  circulation ;  and 
"Bratstvo"  (Brotherhood),  of  Wilkesbarre,  Pennsylvania. 
There  are  also  Protestant  and  Socialistic  Slovak  journals, 
whose  circulation  is  small.  Among  the  distinguished  Slovaks 
in  the  United  States  may  be  mentioned  Rev.  Joseph  Murgas,  of 
Wilkesbarre,  who,  in  addition  to  his  work  among  his  people, 
has  perfected  several  inventions  in  wireless  telegraphy  and  is 
favorably  known  in  other  scientific  matters. 


IX. — Slovenes 

These  come  chiefly  from  south-western  Austria,  from  the 
Provinces  of  Carniola  (Kranjsko;  Ger.,  Krain),  Carinthia 
(Koroska;  Ger.,  Kdrnten),  and  Styria  (Stajersko;  Ger., 
Steiennark)  ;    as    well   as    from   Resia    (Resja)    and    Udine 


SLAVS  IN  AMERICA  i79 

(Videm)  in  north-eastern  Italy,  and  the  Coast  Lands  (Primor- 
sko)  of  Austria-Hungary.    Their  neighbors  on  the  south-west 
are  ItaHans ;  on  the  west  and  north,  Germans;  on  the  east, 
Germans  and  Magyars;  and  towards  the  south,  Italians  and 
their  Slavic  neighbors,  the  Croatians.    Most  of  them  are  bilin- 
gual, speaking  not  only  the  Slovenian  but  also  the  German 
language.     For  this  reason  they  are  not  so  readily  distinguish- 
able in  America  as  the  other  Slavs,  and  have  less  trouble  in 
assimilating  themselves.     At  home  the  main  centres  of  their 
language  and  literature  have  been  Laibach  (Ljubljana),  Kla- 
genfurt   (Celovec),  Graz   (Gradec),  and  Gorz  (Gorica),  the 
latter  city  being  also  largely  Italian.     In  America  they  are 
sometimes  known  as  Austrians,  but  are  more  often  known  as 
"Krainer,"  that  being  the  German  adjective  of  Krain  (Car- 
niola),  from  whence  the  larger  number  of  them  come  to  the 
United   States;  sometimes  the  word  has  even  been  mispro- 
nounced and  set  down  as  "Griner."     The   Slovenes  became 
known  somewhat  early  in  the  history  of  the  United  States. 
Father  Frederic  Baraga  was  among  the  first  of  them  to  come 
here  in  1830,  and  began  his  missionary  work  as  a  priest  among 
the  Indians  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  and  finally 
became  the  first  bishop  of  Marquette,  Michigan.     He  studied 
the  Indian  languages  and  wrote  their  grammars  and  history 
in  his  various  English,  German  and  Slovenian  works.    He  also 
published  several  catechisms  and  religious  works  in  Slovenian, 
and  brought  over  several  other  Slovenian  priests. 

In  Calumet,  Michigan,  the  Slovenes  settled  as  early  as  1856; 
they  first  appeared  in  Chicago  and  in  Iowa  about  1863,  and  in 
1866  they  founded  their  chief  farming  colony  in  Brockway, 
Minnesota.  Here  they  still  preserve  their  own  language  and 
all  their  minute  local  peculiarities.  They  came  to  Omaha  in 
1868,  and  in  1873  their  present  large  colony  in  Joliet,  Illinois, 
was  founded.  Their  earliest  settlement  in  New  York  was 
towards  the  end  of  1878,  and  gradually  their  numbers  have 
increased  until  they  have  churches  in  Haverstraw  and  Rock- 
land Lake,  where  their  language  is  used.  They  have  also  es- 
tablished farm  settlements  in  Iowa,  South  Dakota,  Idaho, 
Washington,  and  in  additional  places  in  Minnesota.  Their 
very  active  immigration  began  in  1892,  and  has  been  (1900- 
1910)  at  the  rate  of  from  6,000  to  9,000  annually,  but  has  lately 
fallen  off.    The  official  government  statistics  class  them  along 


i8o  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

with  the  Croatians.     There  are  now   (1911)   in  the  United 
States  a  Httle  over  120,000  Slovenes;  practically  all  of  them 
are  Catholics,  and  with  no  great  differences  or  factions  among 
them.    There  is  a  leaning  towards  Socialism  in  the  large  min- 
ing and  manufacturing  centres.     In   Pennsylvania  there  are 
about  30,000;  in  Ohio,  15,000;  in  Illinois,  12,000;  in  Michigan, 
8,000;  in  Minnesota,  12,000;  in  Colorado,  10,000;  in  Wash- 
ington, 10,000;  in  Montana,  5,000;  in  California,  5,000;  and  in 
fact  there  are  Slovenes  reported  in  almost  every  state  and 
territory  except  Georgia.     Their  immigration  was  caused  by 
the  poverty  of  the  people  at  home,  especially  as  Carniola  is  a 
rocky  and  mountainous  district  without  much   fertility,   and 
neglected  even  from  the  times  of  the  Turkish  wars.     Latterly 
the  institution  of  Raffeisen  banks,  debt-paying  and  mutual  aid 
associations,   introduced   among  the   people   by  the   Catholic 
party    (Slovenska   Ljudska   Stranka),  has  diminished  immi- 
gration and  enabled  them  to  live  more  comfortably  at  home. 
The  Slovenes  are  noted  for  their  adaptability,  and  have  given 
many  prominent  missionary  leaders  to  the  Church  in  the  United 
States.     Among  them  are  Bishops  Baraga,  Mrak  and  Vertin 
(of    Marquette),    Stariha    (of   Lead),    and   Trobec    (of    St. 
Cloud);   Monsignori   Stibil,    Buh   and   Plut;  Abbot   Bernard 
Locnika,  O.S.B. ;  and  many  others.     There  are  some  ninety- 
two  Slovenian  priests  in  the  United  States,  and  twenty-five 
Slovenian  churches.     Many  of  their  churches  are  quite  fine, 
especially  St.  Joseph's,  Joliet,  Illinois;  St.  Joseph's,  Calumet, 
Michigan ;  and  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius,  Sheboygan,  Wiscon- 
sin.    There  are  also  mixed  parishes  where  the  Slovenes  are 
united  with  other  nationalities,  usually  with  Bohemians,  Slo- 
vaks, or  Germans.     There  are  no  exclusively  Slovenian  reli- 
gious communities.     At  St.  John's,  Minnesota,  there  are  six 
Slovenian  Benedictines,  and  at  Rockland  Lake,   New  York, 
three  Slovenian  Franciscans,  who  are  undertaking  to  establish 
a  Slovenian  and  Croatian  community.    From  them  much  of  the 
information  herein  has  been  obtained.     The  Franciscan  nuns 
at  Joliet,  Illinois,  have  many  Slovenian  sisters ;  at  Kansas  City, 
Kansas,  there  are  several  Slovenian  sisters  engaged  in  school 
work ;  and  there  are  some  Slovenians  among  the  Notre  Dame 
Sisters  of  Cleveland,  Ohio.     Archbishop  Ireland,  of  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota,  sent  to  Austria  for  Slovenian  seminarians  to  finish 
their  education  here,  and  also  appointed  three  Slovenian  priests 


SLAVS  IN  AMERICA  i8i 

as  professors  in  his  diocesan  seminary,  thus  providing  a  Slo- 
venian-American clergy  for  their  parishes  in  his  province. 

There    are    several    church    and    benevolent    organizations 
among  the  Slovenians  in  America.     The  principal  ones  are: 
Kranjsko   Slovenska   Katoliska   Jednota    (Krainer    Slovenian 
Catholic  Union),  organized  in  April,   1894,  now  having   100 
councils  and  a  membership  of  12,000;  Jugoslovenska  Katoliska 
Jednota  (South  Slovenian  Catholic  Union),  organized  in  Jan- 
uary,  1901,  having  90  councils  and  8,000  members;  besides 
these   there   are   also    Slovenska   Zapadna   Zveza    (Slovenian 
Western  Union),  with  30  councils  and  about  3,000  members, 
Drustva  Sv.  Barbara  (St.  Barbara  Society),  with  80  councils, 
chiefly  among  miners,  and  the  semi-socialistic  Delvaska  Pod- 
porna  Zveza    (Workingmen's    Benevolent    Union),    with    25 
councils  and  a  considerable  membership.     There  are  also  Sv. 
Rafaelova  Druzba  (St.  Raphael's  Society),  to  assist  Slovenian 
immigrants,  founded  by  Father  Kasimir,  O.F.M.,  and  the  So- 
ciety of  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius,  to  assist  Slovenian  schools, 
as  well  as  numerous  singing  and  gymnastic  organizations.    The 
Slovenians  publish  ten  newspapers  in  the  United  States.    The 
oldest  is  the  Catholic  weekly,  "Amerikanski  Slovenec"  (Ameri- 
can Slovene),  established  in  1891  at  Joliet,  and  it  is  the  organ 
of  the  Krainer   Slovenian   Catholic  Union.     "Glas   Naroda" 
(Voice  of  the  People),  estabHshed  in  1892  in  New  York  City, 
is  a  daily  paper  somewhat  liberal  in  its  views,  but  it  is  the  offi- 
cial organ  of  the  South  Slavonic  Catholic  Union  and  the  St. 
Barbara   Society.     "Ave  Maria"  is  a  religious  monthly,  pub- 
lished by  the  Franciscans  of  Rockland  Lake,  New  York.  "Glas- 
nik"  (The  Herald)  is  a  weekly  of  Calumet,  Michigan;  as  are 
also  "Edinost"  (Unity),  of  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania;  "Cleve- 
landska  Amerika,"  of   Cleveland,   Ohio;   "Narodni  Vestnik'' 
(People's  Messenger),  of  Duluth,  Minnesota;  and  "Slovenski 
Narod"  (Slovenian  People),  of  Pueblo,  Colorado.    There  are 
also  two  purely  Socialistic  weeklies  in  Chicago :    "Proletarec" 
(Proletarian)   and  "Glas  Svobode"   (Voice  of  Freedom).     A 
very  fine  work,  "Amerika  in  Amerikanci"   (America  and  the 
Americans),  descriptive  of  all  the  United  States  and  Slovenian 
life  and  development  here,  has  been  published  by  Father  J.  M. 
Trunk  at  Klagenfurt,  Austria. 


SLAVONIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITURGY 

ALTHOUGH  the  Latin  holds  the  chief  place  among  the 
liturgical  languages  in  which  the  Mass  is  celebrated 
and  the  praise  of  God  recited  in  the  Divine  Offices, 
yet  the  Slavonic  language  conies  next  to  it  among  the 
languages  widely  used  throughout  the  world  in  the  liturgy  of 
the  Church.  Unlike  the  Greek  or  the  Latin  languages,  each  of 
which  may  be  said  to  be  representative  of  a  single  rite,  it  is 
dedicated  to  both  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  Rites.  Its  use, 
however,  is  far  better  known  throughout  Europe  as  an  expres- 
sion of  the  Greek  Rite ;  for  it  is  used  amongst  the  various 
Slavic  nationalities  of  the  Byzantine  Rite,  whether  Catholic 
or  Orthodox,  and  in  that  form  is  spread  among  115,000,000 
people ;  but  it  is  also  used  in  the  Roman  Rite  along  the  eastern 
shores  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  in  Dalmatia  and  in  the  lower  part 
of  Croatia  among  about  100,000  Catholics  there.  Whilst  the 
Greek  language  is  the  norm  and  the  original  of  the  Byzantine 
or  Greek  Rite,  its  actual  use  as  a  church  language  is  limited 
to  a  comparatively  small  number,  reckoning  by  population. 
The  liturgy  and  offices  of  the  Byzantine  Church  were  trans- 
lated from  the  Greek  into  what  is  now  Old  Slavonic  (or 
Church  Slavonic)  by  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius  about  the  year 
866  and  the  period  immediately  following.  St,  Cyril  is  cred- 
ited with  having  invented  or  adapted  a  special  alphabet  which 
now  bears  his  name  (Cyrillic)  in  order  to  express  the  sounds 
of  the  Slavonic  language,  as  spoken  by  the  Bulgars  and  Mo- 
ravians of  his  day. 

Later  on  St.  Methodius  translated  the  entire  Bible  into  Sla- 
vonic and  his  disciples  afterwards  added  other  works  of  the 
Greek  saints  and  the  canon  law.  These  two  brother  saints 
always  celebrated  Mass  and  administered  the  sacraments  in  the 
Slavonic  language.  News  of  their  successful  missionary  work 
among  the  pagan  Slavs  was  carried  to  Rome  along  with  com- 
plaints against  them  for  celebrating  the  rites  of  the  Church  in 

182 


SLAVONIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITURGY        183 

the  heathen  vernacular.  In  868  Saints  Cyril  and  Methodius 
were  summoned  to  Rome  by  Nicholas  I,  but  arriving  there 
after  his  death  they  were  heartily  received  by  his  successor, 
Adrian  II,  who  approved  of  their  Slavonic  version  of  the 
liturgy.  St.  Cyril  died  in  Rome  in  869  and  is  buried  in  the 
Church  of  San  Clemente.  St.  Methodius  was  afterwards  con- 
secrated Archbishop  of  Moravia  and  Pannonia  and  returned 
thither  to  his  missionary  work.  Later  on  he  was  again  ac- 
cused of  using  the  heathen  Slavonic  language  in  the  celebration 
of  the  Mass  and  in  the  sacraments.  It  was  a  popular  idea 
then,  that  as  there  had  been  three  languages,  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Latin,  inscribed  over  Our  Lord  on  the  cross,  it  would  be 
sacrilegious  to  use  any  other  language  in  the  service  of  the 
Church.  St.  Methodius  appealed  to  the  Pope  and  in  879  he 
was  again  summoned  to  Rome,  before  John  VIII,  who  after 
hearing  the  matter  sanctioned  the  use  of  the  Slavonic  language 
in  the  Mass  and  the  offices  of  the  Church,  saying  among  other 
things :  "We  rightly  praise  the  Slavonic  letters  invented  by 
Cyril,  in  which  praises  to  God  are  set  forth,  and  we  order  that 
the  glories  and  deeds  of  Christ  Our  Lord  be  told  in  that  same 
language.  Nor  is  it  in  any  wise  opposed  to  wholesome  doc- 
trine and  faith  to  say  Mass  in  that  same  Slavonic  language 
(Nee  sanse  fidei  vel  doctrinse  aliquid  obstat  missam  in  eadem 
slavonica  Hngua  canere),  or  to  chant  the  holy  gospels  or  divine 
lessons  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  duly  translated 
and  interpreted  therein,  or  the  other  parts  of  the  divine  office : 
for  He  who  created  the  three  principal  languages,  Hebrew, 
Greek  and  Latin,  also  made  the  others  for  His  praise  and 
glory"  (Boczek,  Codex,  tom.  I,  pp.  43-44)-  From  that  time 
onward  the  Slavonic  tongue  was  firmly  fixed  as  a  liturgical 
language  of  the  Church,  and  was  used  wherever  the  Slavic 
tribes  were  converted  to  Christianity  under  the  influence  of 
monks  and  missionaries  of  the  Greek  Rite.  The  Cyrillic  letters 
used  in  writing  it  are  adaptations  of  uncial  Greek  alphabet,  with 
the  addition  of  a  number  of  new  letters  to  express  sounds  not 
found  in  the  Greek  language.  All  Church  books  in  Russia, 
Servia,  Bulgaria,  or  Austria-Hungary  (whether  used  in  the 
Greek  Catholic  or  the  Greek  Orthodox  Churches)  are  printed 
in  the  old  Cyrillic  alphabet  and  in  the  ancient  Slavonic  tongue. 
But  even  before  St.  Cyril  invented  his  alphabet  for  the  Sla- 
vonic language  there  existed  certain  runes  or  native  characters 


i84  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

in  which  the  southern  dialect  of  the  language  was  committed 
to  writing.  There  is  a  tradition,  alluded  to  by  Innocent  XI, 
that  they  were  invented  by  St.  Jerome  as  early  as  the  fourth 
century ;  Jagic,  however,  thinks  that  they  were  really  the  origi- 
nal letters  invented  by  St.  Cyril  and  afterwards  abandoned  in 
favor  of  an  imitation  of  Greek  characters  by  his  disciples  and 
successors.  This  older  alphabet,  which  still  survives,  is  called 
the  Glagolitic  (from  glagolati,  to  speak,  because  the  rude 
tribesmen  imagined  that  the  letters  spoke  to  the  reader  and 
told  him  what  to  say),  and  was  used  by  the  southern  Slavic 
tribes  and  now  exists  along  the  Adriatic  highlands.  The  Sla- 
vonic which  is  written  in  the  Glagolitic  characters  is  also  the 
ancient  language,  but  it  differs  considerably  from  the  Slavonic 
written  in  the  Cyrillic  letters.  In  fact  it  may  be  roughly  com- 
pared to  the  difference  between  the  Gaelic  of  Ireland  and  the 
Gaelic  of  Scotland.  The  Roman  Mass  was  translated  into 
this  Slavonic  shortly  after  the  Greek  liturgy  had  been  trans- 
lated by  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius,  so  that  in  the  course  of  time 
among  the  Slavic  peoples  the  southern  Slavonic  written  in 
Glagolitic  letters  became  the  language  of  the  Roman  Rite, 
while  the  northern  Slavonic  written  in  Cyrillic  letters  was  the 
language  of  the  Greek  Rite.  The  prevailing  use  of  the  Latin 
language  and  the  adoption  of  the  Roman  alphabet  by  many 
Slavic  nationalities  caused  the  use  of  the  Glagolitic  to  diminish 
and  Latin  to  gradually  take  its  place.  The  northern  Slavic 
peoples,  like  the  Bohemians,  Poles  and  Slovaks,  who  were  con- 
verted by  Latin  missionaries,  used  the  Latin  in  their  rite  from 
the  very  first.  At  present  the  Glagolitic  is  only  used  in  Dal- 
matia  and  Croatia.  Urban  VIII  in  163 1  definitively  settled 
the  use  of  the  Glagolitic-Slavonic  missal  and  office-books  in  the 
Roman  Rite,  and  laid  down  rules  where  the  clergy  of  each 
language  came  in  contact  with  each  other  in  regard  to  church 
services.  Leo  XIII  published  two  editions  of  the  Glagolitic 
Missal. 

The  liturgy  used  in  the  Slavonic  language,  whether  of  Greek 
or  Roman  Rite,  offers  no  peculiarities  differing  from  the  origi- 
nal Greek  or  Latin  sources.  The  Ruthenians  have  introduced 
an  occasional  minor  modification,  but  the  Orthodox  Russians, 
Bulgarians  and  Servians  substantially  follow  the  Byzantine 
liturgy  and  offices  in  the  Slavonic  version.  The  Glagolitic 
Missal,  Breviary,  and  ritual  follow  closely  the  Roman  liturgi- 


SLAVONIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITURGY         185 

cal  books,  and  the  latest  editions  contain  the  new  offices  autho- 
rized by  the  Roman  congregations.  The  casual  observer  could 
not  distinguish  the  Slavonic  priest  from  the  Latin  priest  when 
celebrating  Mass  or  other  services,  except  by  hearing  the  lan- 
guage as  pronounced  aloud. 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA 

THE  Uniat  churches  of  the  Byzantine  or  Greek  Rite 
were  almost  unknown  to  the  United  States  some  twen- 
ty-five years  ago.  Occasionally  a  priest  of  that  rite 
from  Syria  came  to  America  to  ask  assistance  for  his  people 
who  were  struggling  amid  the  Moslems,  but  while  his  visit 
was  a  matter  of  curiosity,  his  rite  and  the  peoples  who  fol- 
lowed it  were  wholly  unknown  to  American  Catholics.  To- 
day, however,  emigration  has  increased  to  such  an  extent  and 
is  drawn  from  so  many  lands  and  peoples  that  there  are  repre- 
sentatives of  most  of  the  Eastern  rites  in  America,  and  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  Greek  Rite.  These  have  lately  arrived  in 
large  numbers  and  have  erected  their  churches  all  over  the 
country.  The  chief  races  which  have  brought  the  Greek  Rite 
with  them  to  the  United  States  are  the  various  Slavs  of  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, and  they  are  now  approaching  such  a  position  of 
material  well-being  and  intellectual  development  as  to  be  reck- 
oned with  as  one  of  the  factors  of  Catholic  life  in  the  United 
States.  Other  races  have  also  brought  the  Greek  Rite  with 
them  and  established  it  where  they  have  settled.  The  advent 
of  the  Slavs  into  the  United  States  really  commenced  about 
1879-1880.  Those  of  the  Greek  Rite  came  from  the  north- 
eastern portion  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy,  where  they 
inhabited  chiefly  the  northern  and  southern  slopes  of  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains,  which  form  the  boundary  line  between  Ga- 
licia  and  Hungary.  The  first  of  the  newcomers  were  miners 
in  the  coal  districts.  During  the  troublous  times  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, from  1871  to  1879,  when  the  "Molly  Maguires"  ter- 
rorized the  mining  districts  and  practically  defied  the  au- 
thority of  the  State,  the  various  coal  companies  determined  to 
look  abroad  for  foreign  labor  to  replace  their  lawless  workmen, 
and  so  they  introduced  the  Austrian  Slav  to  the  mining  re- 
gions of  Pennsylvania.  His  success  in  wage-earning  induced 
his  countrymen  to  follow,  and  the  coal  companies  and  iron- 

186 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  187 

masters  of  Pennsylvania  were  quick  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
new  and  less  costly  labor.  This  was  before  any  of  the  present 
contract  labor  laws  were  enacted.  The  Slav  was  willing  to 
work  for  longer  hours  than  the  English-speaking  laborer,  to 
perform  heavier  work,  and  to  stolidly  put  up  with  incon- 
veniences which  his  predecessor  would  not  brook.  He  came 
from  a  land  in  which  he  had  originally  been  a  serf  (serfdom 
was  abolished  in  Austria-Hungary  in  1848,  and  in  Russia  in 
1861),  then  a  degraded  poverty-stricken  peasant  with  hardly 
anything  to  call  his  own,  and  it  was  no  wonder  that  America 
seemed  to  offer  him  boundless  opportunity  to  earn  a  living  and 
improve  his  condition.  At  first  he  was  a  cheap  man ;  but  in 
the  course  of  a  very  short  time  the  Slav  became  not  a  mere 
pair  of  strong  hands,  but  a  skilled  worker,  and  as  such  he 
drove  out  his  competitors,  and  his  success  drew  still  more  of 
his  countrymen  across  the  sea.  In  the  anthracite  coal  region 
of  Pennsylvania  there  were  in  1880  but  some  1,900  Slavs;  in 
1890,  over  40,000;  and  in  1900,  upwards  of  81,000.  The  same 
proportion  holds  good  of  the  bituminous  coal-mining  districts 
and  of  the  iron  regions  in  that  and  other  States.  Taking  sim- 
ply the  past  four  years  (1905-1908),  the  immigration  of  the 
Slovaks  and  Ruthenians,  both  of  the  Greek  Catholic  Rite,  has 
amounted  to  215,972.  This  leaves  out  of  consideration  the 
immigration  (147,675)  of  the  Croatians  and  Slavonians  for 
the  same  period,  though  a  considerable  portion  of  them  are  also 
of  the  Greek  Rite.  These  Slavs  brought  with  them  their  Greek 
Catholic  rites  and  practices,  but  they  were  illiterate,  ignorant, 
the  poorest  of  the  poor,  and  knew  nothing  of  the  EngHsh  lan- 
guage. Herding  together  in  camps  and  settlements,  and  work- 
ing like  serfs  at  the  most  exhausting  labor,  they  had  but  little 
opportunity  to  improve  themselves  or  to  learn  the  language, 
customs  and  ways  of  the  Americans  around  them,  while  both 
American  and  foreign-born  Catholics  failed  to  recognize  in 
them  fellow-Catholics,  and  so  passed  them  scornfully  by,  and 
the  American  of  the  older  stock  and  anti-Catholic  prejudices 
too  often  held  them  in  supreme  contempt.  Yet  as  soon  as  they 
gathered  some  little  substance  and  formed  a  settled  community 
they  sent  for  their  clergy.  When  these  arrived,  they,  too,  were 
often  imbued  with  national  and  racial  prejudices,  and  knew 
too  little  of  the  English  language  and  American  ideas  and  cus- 
toms to  initiate  immediately  the  progress  of  their  people,  yet 


i88  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

they  created  for  them  churches,  schools,  and  a  branch  of  their 
native  literature  upon  American  soil,  and  gradually  brought 
them  into  touch  with  the  people  around  them.  In  this  they 
were  seconded  by  many  educated  laymen  who  also  followed 
their  countrymen,  and  the  result  has  been  that  the  Greek 
Rite  has  now  been  established  in  the  United  States  much  more 
solidly  and  with  greater  virility  than  it  is  in  many  of  the  dio- 
ceses in  south-eastern  Europe,  Other  races  and  nationalities 
have  also  established  themselves  besides  the  Slavs ;  and  there 
are  in  America  also  the  Rumanians,  the  Syrians  and  the  Ital- 
ians who  follow  the  Greek  Rite.  But  the  people  who  have 
been  foremost  and  most  enthusiastic  in  the  support  of  and  de- 
votion to  their  Oriental  Rite  are  the  so-called  Ruthenians,  a 
name  used  to  designate  the  Ruthenians  proper  and  also  those 
Slovaks  who  are  their  immediate  neighbors.  In  order  to  un- 
derstand fully  their  position  and  relations  in  America,  some  of 
their  history  and  peculiarities  should  be  given. 


I. — RuTHENiAN  Greek  Catholics 

The  word  Ruthenian  is  derived  from  the  later  Latin  Ru- 
thenia,  the  former  name  for  Russia,  and  of  course  the  Ruthe- 
nians might  well  be  called  Russians.  Indeed,  the  present  Ru- 
thenians declare  that  they  are  the  original  Russians,  and  that 
the  present  Russia  and  Russians  owe  their  name  and  nation  to 
the  accident  of  successful  conquest  and  assimilation.  Their 
own  name  for  themselves  is  Rusini,  and  it  is  probable  that  Ru- 
thenian was  merely  an  attempt  to  put  this  word  into  Latin. 
The  word  Rutheni  is  first  found  in  the  writings  of  the  Polish 
annalist,  Martinus  Gallus  (1190),  and  the  Danish  historian, 
Saxo  Grammaticus  (1203).  The  original  word  Rusini  is  de- 
rived from  Rus,  the  abstract  word  for  Russian  fatherland  or 
dwelling-place  of  the  Slavic  people ;  and  the  English  word 
"Russian"  may  therefore  be  a  derivative  from  the  word 
Rus,  as  denominating  the  race,  or  it  may  mean  a  subject  of 
the  Russian  Empire.  The  former  is  russky,  the  latter  rossiisky, 
in  the  Russian  and  Ruthenian  languages,  and  hence,  while  the 
first  word  is  translated  either  as  Russian  or  Ruthenian,  it  car- 
ries no  special  reference  to  the  Russian  Empire.  These  people 
are  also  called  "Little  Russians"   (an  expression  chiefly  used 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  189 

for  them  in  the  Russian   Empire),  originally  an  allusion  to 
their  stature  as  contrasted  with  the  Muscovites.     Their  lan- 
guage is  known  as  Ruthenian  or  Little  Russian,  and  is  spoken  in 
Northern  Hungary,  Galicia,  Bukowina,  and  in  the  Provinces 
of  Volhynia,  Podolia,  Chelm  and  Kiev,  in  Russia.     It  is  quite 
similar  to  the  Russian  language  of  the  Russian  Empire  (some- 
times called  Great  Russian),  bearing  about  the  same  relation 
to  it  as  Lowland  Scotch  does  to  English,  or  Plattdeutsch  to 
German,  and  rather  closer  than  Portuguese  does  to  Spanish. 
The  Ruthenians  (in  Austria)  and  Little  Russians  (in  Russia) 
use  the  Russian  alphabet  and  write  their  language  in  almost 
the  same  orthography  as  the  Great  Russians  of  St.  Petersburg 
and  Moscow,  but  they  pronounce  it  in  many  cases  very  differ- 
ently, quite  as  the  French  and  English  might  pronounce  differ- 
ently a  word  written  the  same  in  each  language.     This  fact 
has  led  in  late  years  to  a  recension  of  the  Russian  alphabet  in 
Galicia  and  Bukowina  by  the  governmental  authorities,  and  by 
dropping  some  letters  and  adding  one  or  two  more  and  then 
spelling  all  the  words  just  as  they  are  pronounced,  they  have 
produced  a  new  language  at  least  to  the  eye.    This  is  the  "pho- 
netic" alphabet  and  orthography,  and  as  thus  introduced  it  dif- 
ferentiates the  Ruthenian  language  of  these  provinces  more 
than  ever  from  the  Russian.    The  phonetic  system  of  orthog- 
raphy is  still  fiercely  opposed  at  home  and  in  America,  and  as 
an  Austrian  governmental  measure  it  is  regarded  by  many  as 
an  effort  to  detach  the  Ruthenians  from  the  rest  of  the  Rus- 
sian race  and  in  a  measure  to  Polonize  them.     This  battle  of 
the  reformed  phonetic  spelling  rages  as  fiercely  in  the  United 
States  as  in  Austria.     Indeed  the  Greek  Catholic  bishop  here 
has  found  it  necessary  to  issue  his  official  documents  in  both 
the  phonetic  and  the  etymologic  spelling  (as  the  older  form  is 
called),  so  as  to  meet  the  views  of  both  parties.    The  phonetic 
spelling  has  never  been  introduced  among  the  Ruthenians  in 
Hungary,  and  their  section  of  the  language  is  still  written  in 
the  customary  form,  there  and  in  the  United  States.     Besides 
the  Ruthenians  there  are  also  the  Slovaks  who  live  in  Northern 
and  North-western  Hungary,  close  neighbors  to  the  Ruthenians, 
who  are  Greek  Catholics,  and  who  speak  a  language  almost 
like  the  Bohemian,  yet  similar  to  the  Ruthenian.    It  is  written, 
however,  with  Roman  letters,  and  the  pronunciation  follows 
the  Bohemian  more  than  the  Ruthenian.     These  people  seem 


IQO  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

to  have  been  originally  Ruthenian,  but  became  gradually- 
changed  and  moulded  by  the  Bohemians  and  their  language 
and  for  a  long  time  wrote  their  language  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Bohemian.  The  Bohemians,  however,  are  in  the  Aus- 
trian part  of  the  empire,  while  the  Slovaks  are  in  Hungary. 
They  have  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  large  numbers, 
and  are  about  equally  divided  between  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Rites.  This  again  necessitates  the  pubHcation  of  church  mat- 
ters, prayer-books,  journals,  etc.,  in  the  Slovak  language.  It 
illustrates  the  difficulties  of  the  Greek  Catholic  priests  in  the 
United  States,  since  they  are  likely  to  have  in  their  parishes 
Ruthenians  (of  the  old  and  new  orthographies),  Slovaks,  and 
even  those  who  speak  only  Hungarian,  having  lost  their  Slavic 
tongue.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  a  Greece  Catholic 
priest  capable  of  speaking  five  languages :  Ruthenian,  Slo- 
vak, Hungarian,  German  and  English.  It  is  these  people  as  a 
whole  who  are  comprehended  under  the  term  Ruthenian,  al- 
though that  term  applies  strictly  to  those  speaking  Russian  and 
using  the  Russian  alphabet.  After  the  eleventh  century  the 
larger  portion  of  Russians  fell  away  from  the  unity  of 
the  Church  in  the  schism  of  Constantinople,  while  a  minority 
continued  faithful  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  later  many  more 
returned  to  unity.  The  Holy  See,  therefore,  made  use  of  the 
ancient  word  Ruthenian  to  designate  those  Russians  who  fol- 
lowed the  Greek  Rite  in  unity  with  the  Holy  See,  in  order  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  Northern  Russians  who  adhered  to 
the  schism.  Later  on,  those  Russians  who  joined  the  union 
under  the  Polish  kings  received  the  same  name,  and  the  word 
Ruthenian  is  to-day  used  exclusively  to  designate  the  Russians 
of  Austria-Hungary,  who  are  Greek  Catholics,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  Russians  of  the  Russian  Empire,  who  are  of  the 
Greek  Orthodox  faith. 

The  language  of  the  Mass  and  the  other  liturgical  services 
according  to  the  Byzantine  Rite  is  the  ancient  Slavonic  (staros- 
lavianski),  and  the  Greek  Liturgy  was  originally  translated  by 
Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius  about  the  year  868,  and  it  has  re- 
mained substantially  the  same  ever  since.  It  is  curious  to  no- 
tice that  the  Ruthenian  language  is  much  closer,  both  in  spelling 
and  pronunciation,  to  the  church  Slavonic  than  the  present  Rus- 
sian language  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  The  letters  in 
which  the  church  books  are  printed  are  the  Cyrillic,  or  Kiril- 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  191 

litsa,  said  to  have  been  invented,  or,  rather,  adapted  by  St. 
Cyril  from  the  Greek  alphabet,  together  with  some  additional 
letter  of  his  own  invention.  It  consists  of  forty-three  letters 
of  archaic  form  as  used  in  the  church  books,  but  has  been  al- 
tered and  reduced  in  modern  Russian  and  Ruthenian  to  thirty- 
five  letters.  In  the  year  879  Pope  John  VIII  formally  autho- 
rized the  use  of  the  Slavonic  language  forever  in  the  Mass  and 
in  the  whole  liturgy  and  offices  of  the  Church,  according  to  the 
Greek  Rite,  and  its  use  has  been  continued  ever  since  by  the 
Catholic  and  the  Orthodox  (schismatic)  Greeks  of  the  Slavic 
races.  This  is  the  language  used  in  the  Slushebnik  (Missal), 
Trebnik  (Ritual),  Chasoslov  (Book  of  Hours),  and  other 
church  books  of  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  in  America. 

After  the  schism  of  Constantinople  ( 1054)  most  of  the  Rus- 
sians became  estranged  from  the  unity  of  the  Church.  In  1595 
the  Russian  bishops  of  Lithuania  and  Little  Russia  determined 
to  return  to  unity  with  the  Holy  See,  and  held  a  council  at 
Brest-Litovsk,  at  which  a  decree  of  union  was  adopted,  and 
where  they  chose  two  of  their  number,  Ignatius  Potzey  and 
Cyril  Terletzki,  to  go  to  Rome  and  take  the  oath  of  submission 
to  the  Pope.  They  declared  that  they  desired  to  return  to 
the  full  unity  of  the  Church  as  it  existed  before  the  schism  of 
Photius  and  Caerularius,  so  as  to  have  in  Russia  one  united 
Catholic  Church  again.  No  change  in  their  rites  or  their  cal- 
endar was  required  by  Rome,  but  the  whole  of  the  ancient 
Greek  Liturgy,  service  and  discipline  (excepting  a  few  schis- 
matic saints'  days  and  practices)  was  to  go  on  as  before.  In 
December,  1595,  Clement  VIII  solemnly  ratified  the  union  of 
the  two  Churches  in  the  Bull  "Magnus  Dominus."  On  October 
6,  1596,  the  union  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches 
was  proclaimed  and  ratified  in  the  Russian  part  of  the  King- 
dom of  Poland.  A  large  number  of  the  Russian  bishops  im- 
mediately went  over  to  the  union.  In  Chelm  the  Russian 
Bishop  Zbiruiski  led  the  way  with  his  whole  diocese,  and  his 
successor,  Methodius  Terletzki,  was  a  valiant  champion  of  the 
Uniat  Church.  This  Greek  Uniat  Church  even  produced  a 
martyr  for  the  Faith,  St.  Josaphat,  Archbishop  of  Polotzk, 
who  was  slain  by  the  Orthodox  partisans  in  1633.  In  Galicia, 
however,  the  union  was  slower.  While  priests  and  congrega- 
tions became  Uniat,  the  Bishops  of  Przemysl  and  Lemberg  stood 
out  for  nearly  a  century.    But  on  June  23,  1691,  Innocent  Vin- 


192  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

nitzki,  Bishop  of  Przemysl,  joined  the  union,  and  in  1700  Jo- 
seph Shumlanski,  Bishop  of  Lemberg  (it  was  afterwards  re- 
stored to  metropolitan  dignity  by  the  Pope  in  1807),  also  took 
the  oath  of  union  with  the  Holy  See.  From  that  time  till  now 
the  Russians  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Carpathian  Moun- 
tains and  on  both  sides  of  the  River  Dniester  have  been  united 
with  Rome.  On  the  southern  side  of  the  Carpathians  the  Rus- 
sians also  accepted  the  union.  In  the  year  1636  Vassili  Taraso- 
vitch,  Bishop  of  Munkacs,  acknowledged  the  Pope  as  the  head 
of  the  Church  and  for  it  he  was  persecuted,  imprisoned,  and 
forced  to  resign  his  see.  But  union  with  the  Holy  See  could 
not  be  stayed  by  such  means,  and  on  April  24,  1646,  it  was 
accomplished  in  the  city  of  Ungvar  by  Peter  Rostoshinski,  the 
then  Bishop  of  Munkacs,  and  George  Yakusitch,  Bishop  of 
Agri  (Erlau).  These  two  bishops  in  solemn  council,  with 
sixty-three  priests,  abjured  the  schism  and  confessed  them- 
selves Greek  clergy  holding  the  Faith  of  Sts.  Cyril  and  Me- 
thodius in  communion  with  Rome.  Since  that  time  the  Ru- 
thenian  people  (including  the  Greek  Slovaks)  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Hungary  have  acknowledged  the  Pope  as  the  visible  head 
of  the  undivided  Catholic  Church. 

These  Ruthenians  have  continued  to  practice  their  ancient 
Greek-Slavonic  rites  and  usages,  and  their  forms  of  worship 
introduced  into  the  United  States  seem  strange  to  the  Catholic 
accustomed  only  to  the  Roman  Rite,  and  have  made  them  ob- 
jects of  distrust  and  even  active  dislike,  so  that  a  few  of  the 
most  salient  differences  may  be  pointed  out,  although  a  full 
statement  will  be  found  in  the  various  articles  on  the  Eastern 
rites,  ceremonies  and  vestments.  The  Mass  itself  is  said  in 
ancient  Slavonic,  the  altar  is  separated  from  the  body  of  the 
church  by  a  high  partition  called  the  iconostasis,  upon  which 
the  pictures  of  Christ  and  His  Mother,  as  well  as  various 
saints,  are  placed,  and  the  vestments  of  the  Mass  are  quite  dif- 
ferent. The  stole  is  a  broad  band  looped  around  the  neck  and 
hanging  straight  down  in  front,  the  chasuble  is  cut  away  at 
the  front  and  closely  resembles  the  Roman  cope,  and  instead 
of  the  maniple  two  broad  cuffs  are  worn,  while  a  broad  belt 
takes  the  place  of  the  girdle  or  cincture.  Married  men  may 
be  ordained  to  the  diaconate  and  priesthood ;  but  bishops  must 
be  celibate,  nor  can  a  deacon  or  priest  marry  after  ordination. 
Priests  impart  the  Sacrament  of  Confirmation  to  children  im- 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  193 

mediately  after  baptism,  and  Communion  is  given  to  the  laity 
under  both  forms,  the  consecrated  species  being  mingled  to- 
gether in  the  chalice  and  administered  to  the  communicant  with 
a  spoon.  Organs  are  not  used  in  their  churches,  and  their 
church  year  follows  the  Julian  Calendar,  which  is  now  thir- 
teen days  behind  the  Gregorian  Calendar  in  use  in  the  United 
States  and  Western  Europe.  Besides  this,  the  Ruthenians 
(and  the  Russian  Orthodox  likewise)  display  the  so-called 
"three-armed"  (or  Russian)  cross  upon  their  churches  and  use 
it  upon  their  missals,  prayer-books,  paintings  and  banners,  as 
well  as  other  objects.  They  make  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  the 
reverse  direction  of  the  Roman  method,  and  in  their  religious 
services  the  men  and  women  are  segregated  from  each  other 
upon  different  sides  of  their  churches. 

It  is  from  these  people,  inhabiting  Galicia,  Bukowina  and 
Hungary,  that  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  population  has 
come.  Their  earliest  immigration  to  the  United  States  began 
in  1879,  from  the  western  portion  of  Galicia  near  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains,  the  so-called  Lemkovschini,  and  then 
spread  throughout  the  Galician  and  Hungarian  sides  of  the 
mountains.  At  first  it  was  hardly  noticed,  but  it  grew  year  by 
year,  the  earliest  immigrants  coming  from  Grybow,  Gorlice, 
Jaslo,  Neu  Sandec,  Krosno,  and  Sanok  in  Galicia,  and  from 
Szepes,  Saros,  Abauj  and  Ung,  in  Hungary,  until  finally  the 
governmental  authorities  began  to  notice  it.  At  the  post-ofiices 
in  many  of  the  mountain  places  in  the  Ruthenian  portion  of 
Galicia  it  was  observed  that  the  peasants  were  receiving  large 
sums  of  money  from  their  fathers,  sons  or  brothers  in  America. 
The  news  spread  rapidly,  the  newspapers  and  officials  taking 
it  up,  and  so  emigration  was  at  once  stimulated  to  the  highest 
degree.  Every  year  it  has  increased,  and  Ruthenian  societies 
are  formed  here  to  assist  their  newly-arrived  brethren  to  find 
employment  and  to  give  information  to  those  at  home  about 
America.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  exactly  how  many  Ruthenian 
and  Slovak  Greek  Catholics  have  come  to  the  United  States, 
because  no  statistics  have  been  kept  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment in  regard  to  religious  faith  of  immigrants,  and  not 
always  accurate  ones  in  regard  to  race  or  nationality.  Still 
the  immigration  reports  show  that  immigration  from  Austria- 
Hungary  from  1 861  to  1868  was  annually  in  the  hundreds; 
and  from  1869  to  1879  it  ranged  from  1,500  to  8,000  annually; 


194  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

and  in  1880  it  suddenly  rose  to  17,000.  From  1880  to  1908 
the  total  immigration  from  Austria-Hungary  to  the  United 
States  amounted  to  2,780,000,  and  about  twenty  per  cent  of 
these  were  Ruthenians  and  Slovaks.  Within  the  last  four 
years  (1905-1908)  the  immigration  of  the  Slovaks  and  Ru- 
thenians has  amounted  to  215,972.  To  this  must  be  added  the 
Croatians  and  Slavonians  (117,695),  a  large  proportion  of 
whom  are  of  the  Greek  Rite.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  at 
present  in  the  United  States  between  350,000  and  400,000 
Greek  Catholic  Ruthenians,  including  as  such  the  Greek  Catho- 
lic Slovaks  and  Croato-Slovenians.  The  largest  number  (over 
one-half)  are  in  Pennsylvania,  while  New  York,  New  Jersey 
and  Ohio  have  each  a  very  large  number  of  them,  and  the  re- 
mainder are  scattered  all  through  the  New  England  and  West- 
ern States.  From  the  best  information  obtainable  in  advance 
of  the  coming  census  of  1910  their  distribution  is  as  follows: 

Pennsylvania    190,000 

New    York    50,500 

New    Jersey     40,000 

Ohio    . 35.500 

Connecticut     •  • 10,000 

Illinois    8,000 

Massachusetts    7.500 

Rhode  Island  1,500 

Missouri     6,500 

Indiana  •  • 6,000 

Minnesota 3.000 

Colorado,  Dakota,  Nebraska  and  Montana,  about 8,000 

West  Virginia,  Virginia  and  the  Southern  States,  about    5,000 

After  the  Ruthenian  immigration  had  begun  in  considerable 
numbers,  it  was  but  natural  that  they  should  desire  to  establish 
a  Church  of  their  own  rite.  At  Shenandoah,  Pennsylvania, 
the  Ruthenian  settlement  had  so  increased  that  towards  the 
end  of  1884  they  sent  a  petition  to  Archbishop  (afterwards 
Cardinal)  Sylvester  Sembratovitch,  Metropolitan  of  Lemberg, 
praying  that  a  Greek  Catholic  priest  might  be  sent  to  them  to 
found  a  parish  of  the  Greek  Rite  at  that  place.  The  petitioners 
promised  to  build  a  church  for  him  if  he  were  sent.  In  the 
following  year  (1885)  Rev.  Ivan  Volanski,  of  the  Diocese  of 
Lemberg,  arrived  in  the  United  States,  the  first  Greek  Catholic 
priest  to  take  up  work  among  his  people  here.  On  his  arrival 
he  presented  himself  in  Philadelphia  with  his  letters,  but,  be- 
ing a  married  priest,  he  encountered  great  difficulty  in  being 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  195 

recognized  as  a  Catholic  priest  in  good  standing.    However,  he 
proceeded  to  Shenandoah,  where  under  great  difficulties  and 
discouragements  he  organized  his  congregation  and  for  about 
a  year  celebrated  Mass  and  other  services  in  a  hired  hall,  for 
he  was  unable  to  obtain  the  use  of  the  local  Latin  churches  for 
Greek  services.     The  matter  of  his  regularity  and  his  accept- 
ance as  a  priest  in  Pennsylvania  for  the  Ruthenians  was  finally 
arranged  through  Cardinal  Sembratovitch.     Early  in  1886  he 
completed  at  Shenandoah  a  little  frame  church  dedicated  to 
St.  Michael  the  Archangel,  the  first  Greek  Catholic  church  in 
America.     He  then  organized  there  the  first  Greek  Catholic 
Society,  that  of  St.  Nicholas,  built  and  organized  a  small  pa- 
rochial school,  and  then  proceeded  to  form  congregations  and 
to  found  churches  in  other  places  where  the  Ruthenians  were 
thickly  settled.     During  his  stay  he  organized  congregations 
and  started  churches  at  Hazleton   (1887),  Kingston   (1888), 
and  Olyphant   (1888)   in  Pennsylvania,  at  Jersey  City,  New 
Jersey  (1889),  and  at  Minneapohs,  Minnesota  (1889).    Find- 
ing his  Ruthenian  people  without  any  reading-matter  in  their 
own  language,  he  sent  to  Galicia  for  Russian  type,  and  in  the 
latter  part  of  1886  he  obtained  a  few  fonts  from  the  Shev- 
chenko  printing  office  at  Lemberg.     He  then  commenced  the 
publication  in  "phonetic"  Ruthenian  of  a  small  paper  issued 
every  two  weeks  at  Shenandoah  under  the  name  of  "America." 
This  paper  lived  until  about  1890,  but  got  involved  in  the  labor 
troubles  in  the  mining  districts,  which  destroyed  much  of  its 
usefulness.     In  the  spring  of  1887  the  Metropolitan  of  Lem- 
berg sent  him  another  priest.  Rev.  Zeno  Lakovitch  (unmar- 
ried), and  a  lay  teacher,  Volodimir  Semenovitch,  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Lemberg.     Father  Lakovitch  labored  at  Kingston 
and  at  Wilkesbarre,  where  he  died  a  year  later.     In  1888  Rev. 
Constantine  Andrukovitch  was   sent   from   Lemberg,  and,   in 
addition  to  his  parochial  work,  he,  with  Father  Volanski,  un- 
dertook to  establish  a  series  of  stores  in  several  towns  in  Penn- 
sylvania to  sell  goods  to  the  Ruthenians  and  thus  avoid  the 
enormous  prices  which  the  mining  companies  charged  them. 
The  business  venture  was  unsuccessful,  and,  with  other  mat- 
ters, it  caused  the  recall  of  Father  Volanski  to  Galicia.     He 
remained  there  some  time,  then  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to 
Brazil,  where  his  wife  died,  when  he  returned  to  Galicia,  where 
he  was  a  parish  priest  until  his  death  in  1905.    This  business 


ig6  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

venture  also  caused  the  suspension  of  Father  Andrukovitch, 
who  returned  to  Galicia  in  1892.  The  next  three  Greek  clergy- 
men were  Rev.  Theophan  Obushkevitch  (of  Galicia),  Rev. 
Cornelius  Laurisin  and  Rev.  Augustin  Laurisin  (of  Hungary), 
who  took  up  their  missionary  work  energetically.  The  first 
two  are  still  Greek -Catholic  parish  priests  in  this  country.  Since 
their  coming  there  has  been  a  constant  accession  of  Ruthenian 
Greek  priests  from  Galicia  and  Hungary,  and  the  building  of 
churches  and  schools  has  gone  on  with  increasing  success. 
Even  quite  costly  churches  have  been  built.  In  Jersey  City 
the  old  church  has  given  way  to  a  fine  stone  and  brick  church, 
which  is  an  excellent  specimen  of  Russian  architecture,  while 
at  Homestead  and  Shamokin,  Pennsylvania,  there  are  quite 
costly  churches  erected.  Many  of  the  Greek  churches  are  pur- 
chases from  Protestant  denominations,  altered  and  rearranged 
for  the  necessities  of  their  rite,  while  one  or  two  are  churches 
brought  over  from  the  schismatics.  The  first  Greek  Catholic 
Mass  in  New  York  City  was  celebrated  in  the  basement  of  St. 
Brigid's  church  on  Avenue  A  (which  was  put  at  the  disposal 
of  the  Greeks  by  the  late  Archbishop  Corrigan),  on  April  19, 
1890,  by  the  Rev.  Alexander  Dzubay,  who  is  still  in  active 
parish  work  in  America.  This  Greek  congregation  afterwards 
bought  a  church  in  Brooklyn  (St.  Elias,  1892),  and  there  was 
no  Ruthenian  church  in  Manhattan  until  the  Greek  Catholic 
church  of  St.  George  was  opened  in  1905.  In  February,  1909, 
the  Greek  Bishop  Soter  bought  a  Protestant  Episcopal  church 
in  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  refitted  it,  and  consecrated  it 
as  the  Greek  Cathedral  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, and  in  the  adjoining  parish  house  and  rectory  will  also 
open  a  seminary  for  the  education  of  American  priests  of  the 
Greek  Rite.  Of  course  many  Ruthenian  settlements  in  various 
localities  are  too  poor  to  build  and  maintain  a  church,  nor  are 
there  just  at  present  sufficient  priests  in  America  to  attend  to 
their  spiritual  needs.  Still  there  are  at  present  (1909)  about 
140  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  churches  in  the  United  States, 
and  there  are  also  ten  more  new  ones  projected  for  waiting 
congregations.     Their  churches  are  distributed  as  follows : 

Pennsylvania    80 

New  York • 14 

Ohio   12 

New  Jersey   10 

Connecticut    4 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  197 

Illinois     ■ 4 

Massachusetts   4 

Indiana 3 

Missouri    3 

West   Virginia    2 

Minnesota 2 

Rhode   Island    i 

Virginia    i 

The  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  clergy  in  the  United  States 
consists  (1909)  of  one  bishop  and  118  priests,  originating  from 
the  following  dioceses : 

Diocese                              Monks  Secular  Qergy 

Celibates     Married     Widowers 

Lemberg    4  8  5                  5 

Przemysl   6  12                 2 

Stanislau  2  2                  i 

Eperies i  13                10 

Munkacs    2  i  30                 5 

Kreutz   i 

Scranton   i  2 

Philadelphia 4 

Pittsburgh    i 

6  25  64  23 

Several  of  these  priests  are  converts  from  the  Orthodox 
Greek  Church  in  the  United  States.  As  has  been  said,  men 
who  are  already  married  are  ordained  to  the  diaconate  and 
priesthood  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  so  it  naturally  followed 
that  married  priests  were  sent  to  America.  While  a  married 
priesthood  seems  repugnant  to  a  Catholic  of  the  Latin  Rite, 
yet  it  is  strongly  adhered  to  by  the  Greek  Catholics  as  vaguely 
a  part  of  their  nationality  and  Eastern  Rite.  All  American 
Greek  Catholic  priests  will  hereafter  be  ordained  from  celibate 
candidates  only,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  Apostolic 
Letter  "Ea  semper,"  which  will  be  referred  to  later.  The 
growing  importance  of  the  Greek  Rite  in  America,  the  dissen- 
sions arising  out  of  old-country  political  factions  among  the 
Ruthenians,  which  will  be  mentioned  later  on,  and  which  occa- 
sioned serious  interference  with  the  normal  growth  of  the 
Greek  Church,  and  the  increasing  intensity  of  the  efforts  of 
the  Russian  Orthodox  to  detach  the  Ruthenians  in  America 
from  their  faith  and  unity  caused  the  Holy  Father  in  1907  to 
provide  a  Greek  Catholic  bishop  for  America.  Previous  to 
this  (1902)  the  Holy  See  had  sent  the  Right  Rev.  Andrew 
Hodobay,  titular  abbot  and  canon  of  the  Greek  Diocese  of 


198  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Eperies,  as  Apostolic  visitor  to  the  Ruthenians  in  America, 
who  examined  the  conditions  of  the  CathoHcs  of  the  Greek 
Rite  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  returned  to  Europe 
in  1906  with  his  report.  The  choice  of  a  bishop  for  the 
Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  fell  upon  Right  Rev.  Stephen 
Soter  Ortynski,  a  Basilian  monk,  hegumenos  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Paul,  Michaelovka,  Galicia.  On  May  12,  1907,  he  was 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Daulia  by  the  Most  Rev.  Andrew 
Roman  Ivanovitch  Scheptitzky,  Greek  ]vIetropolitan  of  Lem- 
berg,  and  the  other  Greek  bishops  of  Galicia,  and  he  arrived  in 
America  on  August  2y,  1907.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  (Sep- 
tember, 1907)  the  Apostolic  Letter  "Ea  semper,"  concerning 
the  new  bishop  for  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  in  the 
United  States,  his  powers  and  duties,  and  the  general  consti- 
tution of  the  Greek  Rite  in  America  was  published.  It  created 
considerable  dissatisfaction  among  the  Greek  clergy  and  laity 
inasmuch  as  it  did  not  provide  for  any  diocesan  power  or 
authority  for  the  new  bishop,  but  placed  him  as  an  auxiliary 
to  the  Latin  bishops,  and  as  it  modified  several  of  their  im- 
memorial privileges  in  various  ways.  The  Sacrament  of  Con- 
firmation was  thereafter  to  be  withheld  from  infants  at  bap- 
tism, and  was  not  to  be  conferred  by  priests,  but  was  reserved 
for  the  bishop  only  (as  in  the  Latin  Rite  and  among  the  Greeks 
in  Italy),  and  married  priests  were  not  thereafter  to  be  or- 
dained in  America  or  to  be  sent  thither  from  abroad,  while 
the  regulations  as  to  the  marriage  of  persons  of  the  two  rites 
were  also  modified.  The  Greek  Ruthenian  laity  saw  in  it  an 
attack  upon  their  Slavic  nationality  and  Eastern  Rite,  an  idea 
which  the  Russian  Orthodox  Church  eagerly  fostered  and 
magnified.  They  were  told  by  the  Orthodox  that  the  whole 
letter  was  a  latinization  of  their  Greek  Rite  in  regard  to  Con- 
firmation and  Holy  Orders,  and  was  a  nullification  in  America 
of  the  Decrees  of  the  Popes  that  their  rite  should  be  kept  in- 
tact. This  resulted  in  some  losses  (about  10,000)  from  the 
Ruthenians  to  the  Russian  Church,  but  already  many  of  them 
are  coming  back.  Matters,  however,  adjusted  themselves,  and 
the  work  of  the  new  bishop  is  having  good  results.  The  whole 
matter  of  a  Greek  bishop  in  America  is  so  far  in  an  experi- 
mental stage,  and  it  rests  upon  the  extent  of  the  current  and 
future  immigration,  the  stability  and  solidarity  of  the  Ru- 
thenians in  their  adherence  to  their  faith  and  rite,  as  to  what 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  199 

powers  and  authority  their  bishop  shall  ultimately  have.  Where 
there  is  an  evident  and  actual  need  for  it  the  Holy  See  has 
always  granted  the  erection  of  Oriental  dioceses,  but  where  a 
minority  of  a  population  seems  bound  to  become  assimilated 
with,  and  eventually  absorbed  into,  the  surrounding  population, 
the  case  may  be  entirely  otherwise.  The  newly-appointed 
bishop  has  had  success  in  establishing  churches  and  parochial 
schools  and  in  inducing  his  Ruthenian  flock  to  become  Ameri- 
can citizens  and  identify  themselves  with  American  Hfe  while 
not  abandoning  their  faith  and  their  Eastern  Rite.  He  aims 
to  establish  English-Ruthenian  schools  in  each  Greek  parish 
and  to  open  a  Ruthenian-American  seminary  at  Philadelphia 
for  the  education  of  American-born  Ruthenians  as  priests  of 
the  Greek  Rite.  There  is  already  one  American-Ruthenian 
priest,  lately  ordained.  In  purely  theological  matters  they  will 
be  educated  as  in  Latin  seminaries,  if  not  actually  sent  there 
for  lectures,  but  in  the  Oriental  church  rites,  discipline,  liturgi- 
cal language,  music  and  customs  the  proposed  seminary  will 
fill  a  place  for  the  Ruthenians  which  our  present  diocesan  semi- 
naries do  not  fill.  The  number  of  church  or  parochial  schools 
of  the  Ruthenians  is  about  fifty,  where  instruction  in  English, 
Ruthenian,  church  catechism  and  the  elements  of  a  general 
education  is  given.  No  organized  Sunday-school  system  has 
as  yet  been  established  amongst  them,  nor  are  there  any  nuns 
or  religious  engaged  in  teaching  in  the  United  States. 

In  order  to  understand  somewhat  clearly  the  situation  of  the 
Ruthenians  in  America,  account  must  be  taken  of  their  national 
home  politics,  which  they  bring  with  them  and  fight  out  often 
quite  bitterly  in  this  country.  As  already  said,  they  are  from 
the  northern  and  southern  slopes  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains. 
The  northern  Ruthenians  derisively  call  their  southern  breth- 
ren "Hungarians"  (Madyari),  while  the  latter  return  the  com- 
pliment by  calling  the  former  "Poles"  (Poliaki).  The  point 
of  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  each  of  the  nationalities  named  is 
cordially  detested  by  the  Ruthenians  on  either  side.  But  these 
are  merely  surface  divisions  between  the  two  bodies  of  the 
same  race.  Their  actual  factional  differences  are  much  deeper. 
There  may  be  said  to  be,  broadly  speaking,  three  Ruthenian 
parties  or  factions  in  the  United  States :  ( i )  The  Mosco- 
philes,  or  Moskalophiles  (Moskal  is  the  Little  Russian  word 
for  a  Great  Russian),  who  aim  at  an  imitation,  if  not  an  actual 


200  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

adoption,  of  all  things  Russian  as  found  in  the  present  Empire 
of  Russia,  looking  towards  Moscow  as  the  seed  and  kernel  of 
Russian  or  Slavic  development,  and  who  are  strong  supporters 
of  Panslavism;  (2)  the  Ukraintzi,  or  Ukrainians  (the  Ukraine 
is  the  adjoining  borderland  provinces  of  Russia  and  Galicia), 
who  stand  for  the  interests  of  the  Ruthenian  people  in  Austria 
and  of  the  Little  Russians  in  Russia,  as  distinct  and  apart 
from  the  Great  Russians,  and  who  desire  to  develop  the  Ru- 
thenian (Little  Russian)  language,  literature  and  race  along 
their  own  lines,  entirely  distinct  and  apart  from  that  of  the 
present-day  Russian  Empire;  and  (3)  the  Ugro-russki,  or 
Hungarian  Ruthenians,  who  keep  all  the  old  Russian  racial 
traditions,  reverencing  their  Russian  language,  literature  and 
ancestry  as  models  to  follow  in  their  development,  but  at  the 
same  time  refusing  to  follow  the  ideas  of  Moscow  and  St. 
Petersburg  in  such  development,  either  in  Hungary  or  in  the 
United  States.  The  first  two  parties  are  Galicians,  the  last 
one  Slovaks  and  Hungarian  Ruthenians.  These  parties  are 
sometimes  divided  into  smaller  factions,  perplexing  for  an  out- 
sider to  understand,  such  as  those  who  desire  to  introduce  the 
Hungarian  language  and  customs,  even  using  Hungarian  in 
the  liturgy  of  the  Church.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  none  of 
these  larger  parties  ever  agree  upon  any  one  subject  other  than 
their  Slavic  nationality  and  Greek  Rite.  The  Moscophiles  of- 
ten unite  with  the  Greek  Orthodox  and  Russian  societies  upon 
the  slightest  pretext  when  Russo-Slavic  ideals  are  to  be  pro- 
claimed, and  are  fiercely  against  everything  that  does  not  look 
Russiaward,  for  Russia  is  their  big  brother.  On  the  other 
hand  the  Ukraintzi  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  modern 
Russia ;  it  is  behind  the  age  and  lags  in  the  march  of  civiliza- 
tion ;  and  they  have  besides  offended  both  the  other  parties  by 
adopting  the  "phonetic"  style  of  spelling.  This  oifence  seems 
to  be  intensified  because  the  new  (3reek  bishop  is  somewhat  of 
their  way  of  thinking.  The  Ugro-russki  are  violently  op- 
posed to  whatever  does  not  accord  with  the  racial  views  and 
traditions  of  the  Ruthenian  and  Slovak  people  within  the  bor- 
ders of  Hungary,  and  do  not  agree  with  the  views  and  actions 
of  either  of  the  other  two  parties.  Consequently,  the  Greek 
Catholic  bishop  has  to  publish  his  official  communications  in 
Ruthenian,  both  phonetic  and  old-style,  and  in  Slovak,  in  order 
to  reach  all  his  people. 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  201 

Of  course  these  Greek  Catholics  of  such  varied  views  have 
organized  into  societies.  Each  church  has  its  own  local  reli- 
gious and  singing  societies,  but  there  are  other  and  larger  bod- 
ies known  as  "brotherhoods"  or  lodges  (bratstva),  which  have 
been  of  great  assistance  in  building  up  the  Ruthenian  churches. 
They  are  usually  of  the  nature  of  mutual  benefit  societies, 
assist  in  finding  work,  helping  in  religious  matters  and  the  like, 
having  always  the  Greek  Rite  and  the  Ruthenian  race  as  their 
main  inspiration.  Some  of  them  provide  that  their  members 
must  show  that  they  have  made  their  Easter  communion  or 
forfeit  membership,  and  provide  for  the  dropping  of  a  mem- 
ber when  he  ceases  to  be  a  Catholic.  These  brotherhoods  or 
lodges  are  combined  into  a  general  federation  or  union  which 
takes  in  the  whole  United  States.  It  has  its  annual  convention 
composed  of  delegates  from  the  various  brotherhoods,  and 
always  has  some  well-known  Greek  Catholic  priest  as  its  spir- 
itual director.  The  largest  and  oldest  of  these  federated  soci- 
eties is  the  "Soyedineniya  Greko-Kaftolicheskikh  Russkikh 
Bratstv"  (Russian-Greek  Catholic  Union),  which  was  founded 
in  Pennsylvania  in  February,  1892.  It  is  almost  wholly  com- 
posed of  Slovaks  and  South  Carpathian  Ruthenians.  It  now 
(1909)  has  542  brotherhoods  and  22,490  members,  and  has 
besides  a  junior  organization  for  young  people  in  which  there 
are  163  brotherhoods  and  5,400  members,  and  is  in  a  flourish- 
ing condition  in  every  way.  It  also  publishes  a  weekly  Greek 
Catholic  newspaper  at  Homestead,  Pennsylvania — the  "Ameri- 
kansky  Russky  Viestnik"  (American  Russian  Messenger), 
printed  both  in  the  Russian  and  the  Slovak  languages.  In 
Ruthenian  politics  it  is  the  representative  of  the  Ugro-russki 
party.  The  second  of  these  federations  is  the  "Russky  Na- 
rodny  Soyus"  (Russian  National  Union),  which  was  founded 
in  1894  and  is  a  Galician  offshoot  from  the  preceding  society. 
It  is  chiefly  composed  of  Galicians  who  are  Ukrainians,  and 
who  express  themselves  strongly  against  the  Russian  Empire 
and  the  Orthodox  Church.  It  now  has  249  brotherhoods  and 
12,760  members,  and  it  likewise  publishes  a  weekly  newspaper, 
the  "Svoboda"  (Liberty),  which  is  printed  in  New  York  City, 
in  "phonetic"  Little  Russian.  The  third  of  these  federations  is 
the  "Obshchestvo  Russkikh  Bratstv"  (Society  of  Russian 
Brotherhoods),  which  was  founded  July  i,  1900.  It  is  com- 
posed almost  wholly  of  Galicians  of  the  Moscophile  party,  and 


202  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

a  small  minority  of  its  membership  is  also  made  up  of  Galicians 
who  are  either  Greek  Orthodox  or  of  Orthodox  proclivities, 
for  it  is  quite  pro-Russian  and  opposed  to  the  Ukrainians.  It 
has  now  120  brotherhoods  and  6,530  members,  and  publishes  its 
weekly  newspaper,  "Pravda"  (Truth),  at  Olyphant,  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  the  Ruthenian  old-style  spelling.  There  is  also  the 
"Rimsko  a  Greko  Katolicka  Jednota"  (Roman  and  Greek  Cath- 
olic Union),  of  Pennsylvania,  a  Slavic  organization  which  has 
some  175  brotherhoods  and  about  9,000  members,  and  it  is 
estimated  that  about  one-third  of  these  are  Greek  Catholic. 
This  federation  also  publishes  a  weekly  paper,  "Bratstvo" 
(Brotherhood)  in  the  Slovenian  language.  Besides  these  pub- 
lications there  is  also  the  "Dushpastyr"  (The  Pastor),  published 
in  New  York,  which  is  exclusively  a  religious  periodical  and 
devoted  solely  to  the  affairs  of  the  Greek  Catholic  Church  in 
America.  In  it  the  official  utterances  of  the  Greek  bishop  are 
usually  published.  There  are  also  many  other  American  Ru- 
thenian papers  and  periodicals  which  have  nothing  whatever 
to  do  with  church  matters,  but  are  devoted  to  labor  questions, 
national  issues  and  to  Socialism.  Unfortunately,  many  of 
these  publications,  even  the  Catholic  ones,  exhibit  too  much  of 
a  tendency  to  attack  their  opponents  in  strong  language  and 
to  belittle  the  efforts  of  those  not  of  their  party,  and  their 
usefulness  for  good  is  thereby  lessened.  From  time  to  time 
various  religious  works  and  a  number  of  booklets  on  church 
and  national  topics  have  been  published  in  Slovak  and  Ru- 
thenian, and  every  year  there  are  issued  a  number  of  year- 
books or  calendars  containing  a  variety  of  information  and 
illustrations  concerning  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  in 
America  and  abroad. 

The  immigration  of  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  into  the 
United  States  and  the  organization  of  their  churches  and  rite 
has  been  too  recent  to  properly  speak  by  name  of  any  distin- 
guished representatives  of  their  clergy  or  laity.  Nearly  every 
one  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  their  settlement  and  develop- 
ment is  still  alive  and  engaged  in  active  work,  while  a  vigorous 
younger  generation  born  on  American  soil  is  now  growing  up. 
Among  the  Greek  priests  here  in  America  are  several  who  are 
authors  of  learned  works  upon  the  church  language  and  ritual, 
others  who  have  filled  posts  of  considerable  distinction  in  the 
dioceses  in  Hungary  and  Galicia  whence  they  came,  and  many 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  203 

who  have  constantly  employed  their  tongue  and  pen  in  the  edu- 
cation and  improvement  of  their  fellow-countrymen  in  this 
country.  There  is,  however,  no  religious  order  of  women  of 
the  Greek  Rite,  nor  any  association  whatever  of  women  de- 
voted to  church  service  in  the  United  States,  nor  has  any  at- 
tempt been  made  so  far,  either  on  the  part  of  the  clergy  or 
laity,  to  establish  here  anything  of  the  kind. 

In  addition  to  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics  in  the  United 
States,  there  are  a  large  number  of  them  in  Canada.  They 
are  principally  settled  in  the  provinces  of  Manitoba,  Alberta 
and  Saskatchewan,  where  they  have  devoted  themselves  to 
agricultural  pursuits.  It  is  said  that  a  Ruthenian  often  works 
hard  in  the  United  States,  saves  up  his  money,  and  emigrates 
to  Canada,  where  he  can  obtain  cheap  land  under  the  home- 
stead acts.  There  is  besides  a  considerable  direct  immigration 
from  Galicia  and  Hungary,  but  the  majority  of  the  Canadian 
Ruthenians  are  Galicians.  Their  first  church  (St.  Nicholas)  in 
Canada  was  built  about  1900  ai  Winnipeg  by  the  Basilian 
monks  who  are  in  charge  of  the  Greek  missions  of  the  north- 
west. The  Very  Rev.  Platonides  Filas,  O.S.B.M.,  who  is  now 
( 1909)  the  superior  of  the  order  in  Galicia,  was  the  first  mis- 
sionary sent  there.  Afterwards,  in  1905,  another  church  (St. 
Josaphat)  was  built  at  Edmonton.  Later  on  a  monastery  was 
established  in  Winnipeg,  with  a  branch  at  Monaster,  Alberta. 
From  these  central  points,  there  are  now  (1909)  over  sixty 
missionary  stations  established  with  small  Greek  chapels  at 
Oaknook,  Swan  River,  Barrows,  Ethelbert,  Garland,  Grand 
View,  Minatonas,  Yorkton,  Beaverdale,  Rabbit  Hill,  Star,  La- 
ment, Nundare  and  Skaro.  In  this  section  the  Ruthenians 
have  to  contend  with  the  Russian  Orthodox  missions,  which 
are  well  provided  for,  and  with  certain  schismatics  from  the 
Russian  Orthodox  known  as  the  "Seraphimites,"  or  inde- 
pendent Grseco-Russian  Church.  There  are  three  missionary 
communities  of  the  Basilian  monks :  at  Winnipeg,  Edmonton 
and  Monaster.  The  Greek  clergy  in  Canada  consist  of  eight 
monks  and  four  secular  priests.  The  number  of  Ruthenian 
Greek  Catholics  is  between  45,000  and  50,000,  widely  scattered 
through  these  north-west  territories.  In  Canada  there  is  a  reli- 
gious order  of  women  of  the  Greek  Rite,  the  Servants  of  Mary 
(14  in  number),  whose  mother-house  is  in  Lemberg,  Galicia. 
They  have  schools  at  Winnipeg,  Edmonton,  Monaster,  and  in 


204  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

some  outlying  districts.  The  Canadian  Ruthenians  publish  a 
small  paper  ("Canadian  Farmer")  and  have  several  societies 
on  the  pattern  of  those  in  the  United  States. 


II. — Rumanian  Greek  Catholics 

These  people  come  from  the  eastern  provinces  of  Hungary 
known  as  Transylvania.  They  are  of  a  nationality  which 
claims  to  come  down  from  the  Roman  colonists  who  were  set- 
tled there  by  the  Emperor  Trajan,  and  hence  they  still  call 
themselves  Romani.  These  Transylvanians  are  really  of  an 
older  political  order  and  settlement  than  the  independent  coun- 
try known  as  Rumania,  which  bounds  Transylvania  on  the 
east.  The  inhabitants  of  both  lands  are  of  the  same  stock,  but 
those  in  Hungary  were  organized  and  in  possession  of  a  fair 
amount  of  education  and  political  rights  under  Hungarian  rule 
whilst  the  present  Kingdom  of  Rumania  was  still  oppressed 
under  Turkish  rule.  The  latter  only  obtained  its  independence 
after  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1878,  and  in  turn  began  the 
education  and  enlightenment  of  its  people. 

The  Rumanian  language  is  a  Latin  tongue,  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  Italian,  but  with  a  considerable  mixture  of  Slavic,  Greek, 
and  Turkish  words  in  it.  It  is  also  the  language  of  the  Mass 
and  liturgical  offices  according  to  the  Greek  Rite  among  the 
Rumanians,  and  is  an  instance  where  the  Church  has  made 
a  modern  tongue  the  liturgical  language.  Owing  to  Slavonic 
influences,  the  Rumanian  language  was  formerly  written  in 
Slavonic  or  Russian  characters,  and  this  continued  until  about 
1825,  when  the  Roman  alphabet  was  adopted,  first  by  the  Cath- 
olic Rumanians  and  then  by  the  Orthodox,  and  it  has  been 
used  for  the  Rumanian  language  ever  since.  Even  for  church 
books  the  Slavonic  letters  (the  Cyrillic  alphabet)  had  to  give 
way  to  the  Latin  letters,  just  as  the  Slavonic  Liturgy  in  the 
church  services  had  given  away  to  the  Rumanian,  and  now 
both  the  Catholic  and  the  Orthodox  Mass-books  and  Office- 
books  are  printed  beautifully  in  Latin  letters  and  modern  Ru- 
manian, whether  for  use  in  the  churches  of  Transylvania  or 
Rumania.  The  Rumanian  Church,  although  Greek  in  rite, 
was  originally  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Rome  up  to  the  ninth 
century,   when   Constantinople   assumed   jurisdiction   over  it. 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  205 

and  later  on,  when  Constantinople  fell  into  schism,  the  Ru- 
manian Church  went  with  it.  Frequently,  however,  during 
the  centuries  that  followed,  partially  successful  attempts  were 
made  towards  reunion.  At  the  time  of  the  so-called  Refor- 
mation in  Western  Europe  the  Calvinists  endeavored  to  per- 
suade a  portion  of  the  Rumanian  clergy  and  their  flocks  to 
embrace  the  new  doctrines.  This  naturally  led  to  an  examina- 
tion of  matters  wherein  the  Roman  Church  differed  from 
the  Calvinists,  and  also  to  the  points  wherein  it  was  in  har- 
mony with  the  Greek  Church,  and  later  to  a  desire  for  union 
with  it.  The  union  of  the  Rumanian  Greek  Church  in  Hun- 
gary (for  the  other  Rumanians  were  subjects  of  Turkey) 
with  the  Holy  See  dates  from  1700.  The  preliminaries  for 
union  had  been  in  progress  for  several  years  before,  and 
once  or  twice  had  been  on  the  eve  of  success.  In  the  year 
just  mentioned  the  Metropolitan  Athanasius  held  a  general 
synod  of  the  clergy  of  Transylvania  at  Alba  Julia  (Gyulya- 
fehervar),  which  declared,  on  5  September,  1700,  that  "freely 
and  spontaneously  moved  thereto  by  the  impulse  of  Divine 
Grace,  we  have  entered  upon  a  union  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church."  This  decree  was  signed  by  the  metropolitan,  54 
arch-priests,  and  1563  priests.  The  act  of  union  was  con- 
firmed at  Rome  in  the  following  year,  and  the  Greek  Catho- 
lic hierarchy  was  for  a  long  time  the  only  Greek  hierarchy 
in  Transylvania.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the 
Greek  Orthodox  Rumanian  hierarchy  was  also  established. 
The  Rumanian  Greek  Catholics  are  very  proud  of  their  union 
with  Rome,  and  church  documents  are  often  dated  not  only 
by  the  year  of  Our  Lord  (pre  anul  Domnului),  but  also  by 
the  year  of  the  union  (pre  anul  de  la  santa  unire). 

The  Rumanian  immigrant  does  not  seem  to  have  begun  to 
come  to  the  LTnited  States  until  about  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century.  In  the  year  1900  Rumanian  immigration 
from  Transylvania  and  Northern  Hungary  began  to  flow 
towards  the  United  States,  and  lately  has  been  followed  by 
immigration  from  Rumania  itself.  It  has  steadily  increased 
until  now  ( 1909)  there  are  between  60,000  and  70,000  Ru- 
manians in  the  United  States.  Nearly  all  of  these  have  come 
from  Hungary ;  only  a  small  minority  are  from  the  Kingdom 
of  Rumania.  Those  from  Hungary  are  from  the  southern 
and  western  counties  of  Transylvania,  chiefly  the  counties  of 


2o6  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Szatmar,  Szilagy,  Fogaras,  Bihar,  and  Temes.  The  Greek 
Catholics  among  them  number  about  45,000,  and  they  are 
scattered  through  the  United  States  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific.  The  chief  places  where  the  Rumanian  Greek  Catho- 
lics are  settled  are  Cleveland,  Youngstown,  Columbus,  New- 
ark, and  Cincinnati,  Ohio ;  Sharon,  Erie,  Pittsburgh,  Windber, 
and  Scalp  Level,  Pennsylvania ;  Aurora,  Indianapolis,  Indi- 
ana Harbor,  and  Terre  Haute,  Indiana ;  Trenton,  New  Jer- 
sey ;  St.  Louis,  Missouri ;  and  New  York  City.  They  are  all 
quite  poor  and  are  generally  found,  like  all  recent  immigrants, 
in  the  humblest  and  poorest  walks  of  life.  They  lack  suffi- 
cient missionary  priests  of  their  own  rite,  and  at  present  many 
additional  priests  would  be  welcome.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Epami- 
nondas  Lucaciu  was  the  first  Greek  Catholic  Rumanian  priest 
to  come  to  this  country.  He  was  sent  here  in  1904  by  the 
Greek  Catholic  Bishop  of  Lugos,  at  the  request  of  the  late 
Bishop  Horstmann  of  Cleveland,  who  was  asked  for  a  priest 
of  their  own  rite  by  the  Rumanians  settled  in  Cleveland. 
When  he  came,  he  set  about  forming  a  congregation  and 
building  a  church  for  his  people  of  the  Greek  Rite.  His  en- 
ergy and  ability  among  his  countrymen  led  to  the  erection 
and  dedication,  on  21  October,  1906,  of  the  church  of  St. 
Helena  in  Cleveland — the  first  Rumanian  Greek  Catholic 
church  in  America.  His  zeal  also  led  to  the  formation  of 
congregations  in  other  localities,  which  he  visited  regularly. 
In  1908  the  second  Rumanian  church  was  built  and  dedicated 
at  Scalp  Level,  Pennsylvania,  which  serves  as  the  central 
point  for  missionary  work  among  the  Rumanians  of  Penn- 
sylvania. In  1909  the  third  Rumanian  church  was  completed 
and  dedicated  at  Aurora,  Illinois,  and  it  serves  in  its  turn 
as  the  centre  of  Greek  Catholic  work  among  the  Rumanians 
of  the  Western  States.  A  fourth  has  just  been  constructed 
at  Youngstown,  Ohio.  There  are  now  ( 1909)  four  Rumanian 
Greek  Catholic  priests  in  the  United  States,  and  more  are 
shortly  expected  to  arrive.  Greek  Catholic  congregations  have 
been  formed  in  many  localities,  and  they  are  regularly  visited 
by  the  Greek  Catholic  priests  who  are  here,  and  regular 
parishes  will  be  formed  and  churches  erected  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. A  Rumanian  Greek  chapel  is  now  in  course  of  forma- 
tion in  New  York  City  and  awaits  a  priest  from  Transyl- 
vania.   While  they  have  a  small  Catholic  church  paper,  "Cato- 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  207 

licul  American,"  they  also  publish  a  fine  eight-page  weekly, 
"Romanul,"  at  Cleveland  and  New  York,  which  gives  a  great 
deal  of  church  news,  and  they  also  publish  a  little  monthly 
magazine  and  an  illustrated  year-book  in  which  many  details 
of  their  churches,  societies,  and  progress  are  given.  The 
weekly  paper  was  originally  founded  by  Father  Lucaciu  to 
provide  reading-matter  and  general  news  for  his  people,  but 
it  has  since  passed  into  other  hands.  Their  societies  are  not 
strictly  speaking  church  organizations,  but  are  rather  mutual 
benefit  societies  for  Rumanians,  and  some  even  have  a  limited 
membership  of  the  Orthodox,  for  the  Rumanians  of  Hungary, 
whether  Greek  Catholic  or  Greek  Orthodox,  are  very  closely 
united  upon  racial  and  national  feelings,  and  do  not  exhibit 
the  hostility  sometimes  shown  between  the  two  Churches  else- 
where. The  principal  societies  are  "Racia  Romana,"  "Ardea- 
lana,"  "Unirea  Romana,"  and  "Societatea  Traian,"  numbering 
altogether  about  3000  members,  and  generally  identified  with 
the  church  congregations. 


III. — Syrian  (Melchite)  Greek  Catholics 

About  1886  the  first  immigration  from  the  Mediterranean' 
coasts  of  Asia  began  to  reach  the  shores  of  the  United  States, 
when  the  Armenians,  Greeks,  and  Syrians  began  to  swell  the 
numbers  of  our  immigrants.  Among  them  came  the  Syrian 
Greeks,  or  those  Syrians  who  were  of  the  Byzantine  Rite, 
whether  Catholic  or  Orthodox.  The  name  Melchite  is  occa- 
sionally used  to  designate  a  Syrian  of  the  Greek  Orthodox 
Faith,  but  now  it  rarely  has  that  meaning,  since  the  schismat- 
ics prefer  to  be  known  as  Syro-Arabians,  at  least  in  the 
United  States,  where  they  are  largely  under  Russian  influ- 
ence, for  it  is  nearly  always  applied  to  the  Catholics.  After 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon  the  Melchites  followed  the  for- 
tunes of  the  Greek  Church  of  Constantinople.  When  it  sep- 
arated from  Rome  they  also  gradually  became  separated, 
merely  through  inertia.  Occasionally  a  bishop  became  Catho- 
lic, and  there  were  sporadic  attempts  to  reunite  them  with 
the  Holy  See.  Cyril  V,  who  was  elected  Patriarch  of  Antioch 
about  the  year  1700,  decided  to  come  back  to  unity  and  made 
his  submission  and  profession  of  the  Catholic  Faith  to  Pope 


2o8  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Clement  XI,  and  his  example  was  followed  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  the  Bishop  of  Beirut,  and  other  prelates. 
From  that  time  on  the  Syrian  Greek  Catholics  have  had  a 
restored  Catholic  line  of  Patriarchs  of  Antioch.  Strangely 
enough,  the  word  Melchite,  which  had  been  used  to  designate 
those  who  adhered  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Con- 
stantinople when  it  was  Catholic  and  in  unity,  and  who  even 
followed  it  when  it  left  the  unity  of  the  Church,  came  eventu- 
ally to  mean,  after  the  union  of  Cyril  V  and  his  fellow-bishops, 
almost  exclusively  those  Syrians  of  the  Greek  Rite  who  were 
Catholics  and  united  with  the  Holy  See.  Their  rite,  of  course, 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  other  Greek  Catholics,  but  the  lan- 
guage used  in  the  Mass  and  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments and  in  the  church  offices  is  the  Arabic,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  certain  prayer-endings  and  versicles  of  the  Mass, 
which  are  still  intoned  in  the  original  Greek.  Still  a  Melchite 
priest  may  celebrate  entirely  in  Greek  if  he  so  desires,  and 
the  Catholic  Missal  is  printed  in  parallel  columns  in  each 
language  as  to  the  parts  which  are  to  be  intoned  or  said  aloud. 
At  first  these  Syrians  were  in  small  numbers  and  were  not 
distinguishable  from  the  Arabic-speaking  Maronites  or  from 
the  Syro-Arabian  Orthodox  Greeks,  all  of  whom  began  to 
come  to  this  country  about  the  same  date.  This  Syrian  im- 
migration, as  compared  with  that  from  other  lands,  has  never 
been  very  large.  The  Greek  Catholics  came  at  first  from  the 
same  localities  as  the  Maronites — Beirut  and  Mount  Lebanon ; 
but  now  they  come  from  Damascus  and  other  parts  of  Syria  as 
well.  In  1 891  Rev.  Abraham  Bechewate,  a  Basilian  monk  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Saviour,  from  Saida  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Zahleh  and  Farzul,  Mount  Lebanon,  was  sent  to  this 
country  by  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch  to  take  up  missionary 
work  among  his  countrymen.  So  far  he  has  been  instrumental 
in  establishing  missions  and  congregations  in  various  cities  and 
in  having  other  priests  sent  to  assist  him.  His  first  efforts  were 
confined  to  New  York  City,  and  at  present  the  Melchites  in 
New  York  City  use  the  basement  of  St.  Peter's  Church  on 
Barclay  Street,  but  they  have  bought  ground  in  Brooklyn  with 
a  view  to  erecting  a  Syrian  Greek  Catholic  church  there.  After 
Father  Bechewate  other  priests  were  sent  to  take  up  the  work 
at  various  places  throughout  the  United  States.  At  the  pres- 
ent   time    (1909)     there    are    altogether    fourteen    Melchite 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  209 

churches  or  congregations  in  the  United  States  and  just  across 
the  border  in  Canada.  Besides  these  there  are  many  mission 
stations  which  the  Melchite  Greek  priests  visit  periodically. 
These  churches  are  situated  at  the  following  places :  New 
York  City ;  Boston  and  Lawrence,  Massachusetts  ;  Omaha,  Ne- 
braska ;  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Dubois  and  Scranton,  Pennsylvania; 
Chicago  and  Joliet,  Illinois ;  Rockley,  South  Dakota ;  La 
Crosse,  Wisconsin ;  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island ;  and  Montreal 
and  Toronto,  Canada.  So  far  they  have  erected  four  fair- 
sized  churches  in  Lawrence,  Cleveland,  Dubois  and  La  Crosse. 
The  cost  of  land  in  the  large  cities  has  prevented  them  from 
building,  so  that  their  congregations  in  the  other  places  are 
assembled  either  in  the  Latin  churches  or  in  rented  premises. 
The  number  of  the  Syrian  Greek  Catholics  in  the  United  States 
(1909)  is  between  8,000  and  10,000,  and  they  are  to  be  found 
chiefly  in  the  New  England  States,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and 
Illinois.  For  their  spiritual  needs  there  are  thirteen  Syrian 
Greek  Catholic  priests,  seven  of  them  Basilian  monks  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Saviour  from  the  Diocese  of  Zahleh 
and  Farzul,  four  of  them  Basilian  monks  of  the  Congregation 
of  St.  John  (Soarite)  from  the  Dioceses  of  Aleppo  and  Zah- 
leh, and  two  secular  priests  from  the  Diocese  of  Beirut.  Ow- 
ing to  the  poverty  of  most  Syrian  congregations,  they  have  not 
maintained  any  schools  and  have  no  Sunday-school  instruction, 
and  the  majority  of  the  Syrian  children  attend  the  nearest 
Latin  parochial  school,  if  there  be  one.  They  have  a  small 
Arabic  paper,  "Al-Kown"  (The  Universe),  published  in  New 
York  City,  and  have  the  church  society  of  "St.  George." 


IV. — Italian  Greek  Catholics 

In  the  extreme  southern  part  of  Italy  and  in  the  Island  of 
Sicily  the  Greek  Rite  has  always  flourished,  even  from  Apos- 
tolic times.  Three  of  the  Popes  (Sts.  Eusebius,  Agatho  and 
Zacharias)  were  Greeks  from  that  region.  Many  of  the  Greek 
saints  venerated  by  the  Church  were  Southern  Italians  or  Si- 
cilians, and  the  great  Greek  monastery  of  Grottaferrata  near 
Rome  was  founded  by  St.  Nilus,  a  native  of  Rossano  in  Ca- 
labria. The  Greek  Rite  in  Southern  Italy  never  fell  into  schism 
or  separated  from  unity  with  Rome  at  the  time  of  the  great 


2IO  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Schism  of  Constantinople.  Although  they  held  to  their  faith 
and  rite,  yet  the  fact  that  they  were  not  thereafter  closely  allied 
with  their  fellow-Greeks  of  Constantinople  caused  the  follow- 
ers of  their  rite  to  diminish.  After  the  schism  an  idea  grew 
up  among  the  Italians  of  the  Roman  Rite  that  the  Greek 
language  and  ritual  were  in  some  indefinable  way  identified 
with  the  schism.  This  was  intensified  upon  the  failure  of  the 
Greeks  after  the  Council  of  Florence  (1428)  to  adhere  to  the 
union.  Therefore,  as  the  Greek  language  died  out  among  the 
southern  Italians,  they  gradually  gave  up  their  Greek  Rite  and 
adopted  the  Roman  Rite  instead.  While  the  Greek  Rite  thus 
became  gradually  confined  to  monasteries,  religious  houses 
and  country  towns,  and  would  perhaps  never  have  died  out  on 
Italian  soil,  yet  it  was  reinforced  in  a  singular  manner  by  im- 
migration from  the  Balkan  peninsula  in  the  period  between 
1450  and  1500.  The  Albanians,  who  were  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity and  followed  the  Greek  Rite,  using  the  Greek  language 
in  their  liturgy,  were  persecuted  by  the  Turks,  and,  by  reason 
of  the  many  Turkish  victories  over  the  Albanians  under  their 
chieftain,  George  Castriota,  also  known  by  his  Turkish  name 
of  Scanderbeg  (Alexander  Bey),  were  forced  to  leave  their 
native  land  in  large  numbers.  Scanderbeg  applied  to  Pope 
Eugene  IV  for  permission  for  his  people  to  settle  in  Italy,  so 
as  to  escape  the  Moslem  persecutions.  From  time  to  time 
they  settled  in  Calabria  and  Sicily,  and  received  among  other 
privileges  that  of  retaining  their  Greek  Rite  wherever  their 
colonies  were  established.  Since  that  time  they,  like  the  Greek 
inhabitants  of  Southern  Italy,  have  become  entirely  Italianized, 
but,  together  with  them,  have  retained  their  Greek  Rite  quite 
distinct  from  their  Latin  neighbors  down  to  the  present  day. 
All  the  Italians  who  follow  the  Greek  Rite  in  Southern  Italy 
are  known  as  Albanese  (Albanians),  although  only  the  older 
generations  of  that  race  retain  their  knowledge  of  the  Albanian 
tongue.  The  Mass  and  all  the  offices  of  the  Church  are  of 
course  said  in  Greek  according  to  the  Rite  of  Constantinople, 
although  a  few  Latinizing  practices  have  crept  in.  The  smaller 
churches  do  not  have  the  iconostasis,  priests  do  not  confer  con- 
firmation, but  it  is  given  by  the  bishop,  and  they  follow  the 
Gregorian  calendar  instead  of  the  Julian  calendar  followed  by 
all  the  other  Greeks. 

When  the  immigration  to  America  from  the  south  of  Italy 


GREEK  CATHOLICS  IN  AMERICA  211 

and  from  Sicily  began  in  large  proportions,  the  Italo-Greeks 
came  also.     They  are  from  Calabria,  Apulia  and  Basilicata  in 
Italy,  and  from  the  Dioceses  of  Palermo,  Monreale  and  Mes- 
sina, in  Sicily.     They  are  settled  in  the  United  States  chiefly 
in  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Chicago,  and  throughout  the 
States  of  Pennsylvania  and   Illinois.     It  is  claimed  that  the 
Greek  CathoHc  population  of  Italy  has  sent  a  third  of  its  num- 
ber to  America,  and  some  well-informed  Albanese  have  even 
declared  that  there  are  perhaps   more.     They  estimate  that 
there  are  20,000  of  them  in  the  United  States,  the  greater  part 
of  whom  are  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia. 
As  a  rule  they  have  not  shown  themselves  in  any  wise  as 
devoted  church-attendants,  but  that  may  be  because  they  have 
been  in  a  measure  neglected,  for  every  one  assumes  that  an 
Italian  must  be  of  the  Roman  Rite  and  ought  to  go  to  a  Latin 
church.     They  have  neither  the  means  to  construct  churches 
of  their  own  rite  nor  do  they  care  to  frequent  churches  of  the 
Latin  Rite,  although  their  societies  usually  attend  the  Italian 
CathoHc  churches  and  celebrate  their   festivals  according  to 
the  Latin  Rite.     In  many  places  they  attend  the  churches  of 
the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholics,  and  in   some  few  instances 
some  have  gone  to  the  Hellenic  churches  of  the  Greek  Ortho- 
dox, where  the  language  of  the  ritual  is  Greek.     During  the 
year  1904  the  first  (and  so  far  the  only)  Itahan  Greek  Catholic 
priest.  Papas  (Rev.)   Giro  Pinnola,  was  sent  from  Sicily  by 
Cardinal  Celesia  of  Palermo  to  the  United  States,  to  look  after 
the  scattered  flock  of  Greek  Catholics  here,  and  he  is  now  a 
priest  of  the  Archdiocese  of  New  York.    He  found  that  these 
Italians,  being  accustomed  to  the  language  and  rites  of  the 
Greek  Church,  as  well  as  infected  by  the  inertia  of  so  many 
of  the  newcomers  to  these  shores,  had  not  attended  the  Latin 
Catholic  churches,  and  that  they  had  become  the  prey  of  all 
sorts  of  missionary  experiments  to  draw  them  away  from  their 
allegiance  to  the  Faith.    Besides,  they  were  among  the  poorest 
of  the  Italian  immigrants  and  had  been  unable  to  establish  or 
maintain  a  chapel  or  church  of  their  rite.     He  took  energetic 
steps  to  look  after  them  and  on  Easter  Day,  1906,  had  the 
pleasure  of  opening  the  first  Italian  Greek  Catholic  chapel  on 
Broome  Street  in  the  City  of  New  York.    This  has  progressed 
so  far  that  he  has  now  a  larger  missionary  chapel  (Our  Lady 
of  Grace)   on  Stanton  Street,  with  a  congregation  of  about 


212  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

400,  where  the  Greek  Rite  in  the  Greek  language  is  celebrated. 
He  has  also  various  missionary  stations  in  Brooklyn  and  on 
Long  Island,  which  he  visits  at  regular  intervals,  but  he  has 
been  unable  to  do  anything  for  the  Italian  Greek  Catholics  in 
Pennsylvania  and  elsewhere.  Other  priests  of  their  rite  are 
needed.  There  is  a  small  school  attached  to  the  Greek  Catho- 
lic chapel  in  New  York,  where  the  Church  Catechism  and 
Greek  singing  is  taught,  as  well  as  several  Italian  and  English 
branches,  and  children  are  instructed  in  their  church  duties. 
There  is  quite  a  large  society  of  men,  the  "Fratellanza  del  San- 
tissimo  Crocefisso,"  a  society  for  mutual  benefit,  religious  in- 
struction, and  the  building  of  an  Italian  Greek  church.  There 
are  some  ten  or  twelve  Italo-Albanese  societies,  having  branches 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  devoted  mostly  to 
secular  objects.  There  is  also  a  small  weekly  Italian  paper, 
''L'Operaio,"  for  the  Italo-Albanese  and  their  Greek  Rite,  but 
it  is  also  devoted  to  Socialism  and  the  wildest  labor  theories, 
so  that  its  usefulness  is  doubtful. 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

SINCE  immigration  from  the  eastern  portion  of  Europe 
and  from  Asia  and  Africa  set  in  with  such  volume,  the 
peoples  who  (both  in  union  with  and  outside  the  unity 
of  the  Church)  follow  the  various  ILastern  rites  arrived  in  the 
United  States  in  large  numbers,  bringing  with  them  their 
priests  and  their  forms  of  worship.  As  they  grew  in  number 
and  financial  strength,  they  erected  churches  in  the  various 
cities  and  towns  throughout  the  country.  Rome  used  to  be 
considered  the  city  where  the  various  rites  of  the  Church 
throughout  the  world  could  be  seen  grouped  together,  but  in 
the  United  States  they  may  be  observed  to  a  greater  advantage 
than  even  in  Rome.  In  Rome  the  various  rites  are  kept  alive 
for  the  purpose  of  educating  the  various  national  clergy  who 
study  there,  and  for  demonstrating  the  unity  of  the  Church, 
but  there  is  no  body  of  laymen  who  follow  those  rites ;  in  the 
United  States,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  the  number  and  pressure 
of  the  laity  which  have  caused  the  establishment  and  support 
of  the  churches  of  the  various  rites.  There  is  consequently 
no  better  field  for  studying  the  various  rites  of  the  Church  than 
in  the  chief  cities  of  the  United  States,  and  such  study  has  the 
advantage  to  the  exact  observer  of  affording  an  opportunity 
of  comparing  the  dissident  churches  of  those  rites  with  those 
which  belong  to  Catholic  unity.  The  chief  rites  which  have 
established  themselves  in  America  are  these:  (i)  Armenian, 
(2)  Greek  or  Byzantine,  and  (3)  Syro-Maronite.  There  are 
also  a  handful  of  adherents  of  the  Coptic,  Syrian  and  Chal- 
dean Rites,  which  will  also  be  noticed,  and  there  are  occa- 
sionally priests  of  the  various  Latin  Rites. 

I. — The  Armenian  Rite 

This  rite  alone,  of  all  the  rites  in  the  Church,  is  confined  to 
one  people,  one  language,  and  one  alphabet.    It  is,  if  anything, 

213 


214  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

more  exclusive  than  Judaism  of  old.  Other  rites  are  more 
widely  extended  in  every  way :  the  Roman  Rite  is  spread 
throughout  Latin,  Teutonic  and  Slavic  peoples,  and  it  even  has 
two  languages,  the  Latin  and  the  Ancient  Slavonic,  and  two 
alphabets,  the  Roman  and  the  Glagolitic,  in  which  its  ritual  is 
written ;  the  Greek  or  Byzantine  Rite  extends  among  Greek, 
Slavic,  Latin  and  Syrian  peoples,  and  its  services  are  cele- 
brated in  Greek,  Slavonic,  Rumanian  and  Arabic  with  service- 
books  in  the  Greek,  Cyrillic.  Latin  and  Arabic  alphabets.  But 
the  Armenian  Rite,  whether  Catholic  or  Gregorian,  is  confined 
exclusively  to  persons  of  the  Armenian  race,  and  employs  the 
ancient  Armenian  language  and  alphabet.  The  majority  of 
the  Armenians  were  converted  to  Christianity  by  St.  Gregory 
the  Illuminator,  a  man  of  noble  family,  who  was  made  Bishop 
of  Armenia  in  302.  So  thoroughly  was  his  work  effected  that 
Armenia  alone  of  the  ancient  nations  converted  to  Christianity 
has  preserved  no  pagan  literature  antedating  the  Christian  lit- 
erature of  the  people ;  pagan  works,  if  they  ever  existed,  seem 
to  have  perished  in  the  ardor  of  the  Armenians  for  Christian 
thought  and  expression.  The  memory  of  St.  Gregory  is  so 
revered  that  the  Armenians  who  are  opposed  to  union  with  the 
Holy  See  take  pride  in  calling  themselves  "Gregorians,"  imply- 
ing that  they  keep  the  faith  taught  by  St.  Gregory.  Hence  it 
is  usual  to  call  the  dissidents  "Gregorians,"  in  order  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  Uniat  Catholics.  At  first  the  language  of 
the  Christian  liturgy  in  Armenia  was  Syriac,  but  later  they 
discarded  it  for  their  own  tongue,  and  translated  all  the  serv- 
ices into  Armenian,  which  was  at  first  written  in  Syriac  or 
Persian  letters.  About  400  St.  Mesrob  invented  the  present 
Armenian  alphabet  (except  two  final  letters  which  were  added 
in  the  year  1200),  and  their  language,  both  ancient  and  modern, 
has  been  written  in  that  alphabet  ever  since.  Mesrob  also 
translated  the  New  Testament  into  Armenian  and  revised  the 
entire  liturgy.  The  Armenians  in  their  church  life  have  led 
almost  as  checkered  an  existence  as  they  have  in  their  national 
life.  At  first  they  were  in  full  communion  with  the  Universal 
Church.  They  were  bitterly  opposed  to  Nestorianism,  and, 
when  in  451  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  condemned  the  doctrine 
of  Eutyches,  they  seceded,  holding  the  opinion  that  such  a  defi- 
nition was  sanctioning  Nestorianism.  and  have  since  remained 
separated  from  and  hostile  to  the  Greek  Church  of  Constanti- 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  215 

nople.  In  1054  the  Greeks  seceded  in  turn  from  unity  with 
the  Roman  Church,  and  nearly  three  centuries  later  the  Ar- 
menians became  reconciled  with  Rome,  but  the  union  lasted 
only  a  brief  period.  Breaking  away  from  unity  again,  the  ma- 
jority formed  a  national  church,  which  agrees  neither  with 
the  Greek  nor  the  Roman  Church;  a  minority,  recruited  by 
converts  to  union  with  the  Holy  See  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
remained  united  Armenian  Catholics. 

The  Mass  and  the  whole  liturgy  of  the  Armenian  Church  is 
said  in  Ancient  Armenian,  which  differs  considerably  from  the 
modern  tongue.  The  language  is  an  offshoot  of  the  Iranian 
branch  of  the  Indo-Germanic  family  of  languages,  and  proba- 
bly found  its  earliest  written  expression  in  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions ;  it  is  unlike  the  Semitic  languages  immediately  sur- 
rounding it.  Among  its  peculiarities  are  twelve  regular  de- 
clensions and  eight  irregular  declensions  of  nouns  and  five 
conjugations  of  the  verbs,  while  there  are  many  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  postpositions  and  the  like.  It  abounds  in  conso- 
nants and  guttural  sounds ;  the  words  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  in 
Armenian  will  suffice  as  an  example  :  "Hair  mier.  vor  herghins 
ies,  surp  iegitzi  anun  ko,  ieghastze  arkautiun  ko,  iegitzin  garnk 
ko,  vorbes  hierghins  iev  hergri,  zhatz  mier  hanabazort  dur  miez 
aissor,  iev  tog  miez  ezbardis  mier,  vorbes  iev  mek  togumk 
merotz  bardabanatz,  iev  mi  danir.  zmez  i  porsutiun,  ail  perghea 
i  chare."  The  language  is  written  from  left  to  right,  like 
Greek,  Latin,  or  English,  but  in  an  alphabet  of  thirty-eight 
peculiar  letters,  which  are  dissimilar  in  form  to  anything  in 
the  Greek  or  Latin  alphabet,  and  are  arranged  in  the  most  per- 
plexing order.  For  instance,  the  Armenian  alphabet  starts  o^ 
with  a,  p,  k,  t,  z,  etc.,  and  ends  up  with  the  letter  /.  It  may 
also  be  noted  that  the  Armenian  has  changed  the  consonantal 
values  of  most  of  the  ordinary  sounds  in  Christian  names ; 
thus  George  becomes  Kevork ;  Sergius,  Sarkis ;  Jacob,  Hagop ; 
Joseph,  Hovsep;  Gregory,  Krikori;  Peter,  Bedros,  and  so  on. 
The  usual  clan  addition  of  the  word  "son"  {ian)  to  most  Ar- 
menian family  names,  something  like  the  use  of  mac  in  the 
Gaelic  languages,  renders  usual  Armenian  names  easy  of  iden- 
tification (e.  g.,  Azarian,  Hagopian,  Rubian,  Zohrabian,  etc.). 

The  book  containing  the  regulations  for  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments,  analogous  to  the  Greek  Euchologion  or  the 
Roman  Ritual,  is  called  the  "Mashdotz,"  after  the  name  of  its 


2i6  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

compiler,  St.  Mesrob,  who  was  surnamed  Mashdotz.  He  ar- 
ranged and  compiled  the  five  great  liturgical  books  used  in  the 
Armenian  Church:  (i)  the  Breviary  (Zhamakirk)  or  Book 
of  Hours;  (2)  The  Directory  (Tzutzak)  or  Calendar,  contain- 
ing the  fixed  festivals  of  the  year;  (3)  The  Liturgy  (Pataraga- 
kirk)  or  Missal,  arranged  and  enriched  also  by  John  Manta- 
guni;  (4)  The  Book  of  Hymns  (Dagaran),  arranged  for  the 
principal  great  feasts  of  the  year;  (5)  The  Ritual  or  "Mash- 
dotz," mentioned  above.  A  peculiarity  about  the  Armenian 
Church  is  that  the  majority  of  great  feasts  falling  upon  week- 
days are  celebrated  on  the  Sunday  immediately  following.  The 
great  festivals  of  the  Christian  year  are  divided  by  the  Arme- 
nians into  five  classes:  (i)  Easter;  (2)  feasts  which  fall  on 
Sunday,  such  as  Palm  Sunday,  Pentecost,  etc.;  (3)  feasts 
which  are  observed  on  the  days  on  which  they  occur:  the  Na- 
tivity, Epiphany,  Circumcision,  Presentation  and  Annuncia- 
tion; (4)  feasts  which  are  transferred  to  the  following  Sun- 
day: Transfiguration,  Immaculate  Conception,  Nativity  B.  V. 
M.,  Assumption,  Holy  Cross,  feasts  of  the  Apostles,  etc.;  (5) 
other  feasts,  which  are  not  observed  at  all  unless  they  can  be 
transferred  to  Sunday.  The  Gregorian  Armenians  observe 
the  Nativity,  Epiphany  and  Baptism  of  Our  Lord  on  the  same 
day  (January  6),  but  the  Catholic  Armenians  observe  Christ- 
mas on  December  25  and  the  Epiphany  on  January  6,  and  they 
observe  many  of  the  other  feasts  of  Our  Lord  on  the  days  on 
which  they  actually  fall.  The  principal  fasts  are  :  ( i )  Lent ; 
(2)  the  Fast  of  Nineveh  for  two  weeks,  one  month  before  the 
commencement  of  Lent — in  reality  a  remnant  of  the  ancient 
Lenten  fast,  now  commemorated  only  in  name  by  our  Sep- 
tuagesima,  Sexagesima  and  Quinquagesima  Sundays;  (3)  the 
week  following  Pentecost.  The  days  of  abstinence  are  the 
Wednesdays  and  Fridays  throughout  the  year  with  certain  ex- 
ceptions (e.  g.,  during  the  week  after  the  Nativity,  Easter  and 
the  Assumption).  In  the  Armenian  Church  Saturday  is  ob- 
served as  the  Sabbath,  commemorating  the  Old  Law  and  the 
creation  of  man,  and  Sunday  as  the  Lord's  Day  of  Resurrec- 
tion and  rejoicing,  commemorating  the  New  Law  and  the  re- 
demption of  man.  Most  of  the  saints'  days  are  dedicated  to 
Armenian  saints  not  commemorated  in  other  lands,  but  the 
Armenian  Catholics  in  Galicia  and  Transylvania  use  the  Gre- 
gorian   (not   the    Julian)    Calendar,    and  have  many  Roman 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  217 

saints'  days  and  feasts  added  to  their  ancient  ecclesiastical 
year. 

In  the  actual  arrangement  of  the  church  building  for  wor- 
ship the  Armenian  Rite  differs  both  from  the  Greek  and  the 
Latin.  While  the  Armenian  Church  was  in  communion  with 
Rome,  it  seems  to  have  united  many  Roman  practices  in  its 
ritual  with  those  that  were  in  accord  with  the  Greek  or  Byzan- 
tine forms.  The  church  building  may  be  divided  into  the  sanc- 
tuary and  church  proper  (choir  and  nave).  The  sanctuary 
is  a  platform  raised  above  the  general  level  of  the  church  and 
reached  by  four  or  more  steps.  The  altar  is  always  erected 
in  the  middle  of  it,  and  it  is  again  a  few  steps  higher  than  the 
level  of  the  sanctuary.  It  is  perhaps  possible  that  the  Arme- 
nians originally  used  an  altar-screen  or  iconostasis,  like  that 
of  the  Greek  churches,  but  it  has  long  since  disappeared.  Still 
they  do  not  use  the  open  altar  like  the  Latin  Church.  Two 
curtains  are  hung  before  the  sanctuary :  a  large  double  curtain 
hangs  before  its  entrance,  extending  completely  across  the 
space  like  the  Roman  chancel  rail,  and  is  so  drawn  as  to  con- 
ceal the  altar,  the  priest,  and  the  deacons  at  certain  parts  of 
the  Mass ;  the  second  and  smaller  curtain  is  used  merely  to 
separate  the  priest  from  the  deacons  and  to  cover  the  altar 
after  service.  Each  curtain  opens  on  both  sides,  and  ordinarily 
is  drawn  back  from  the  middle.  The  second  curtain  is  not 
much  used.  The  use  of  these  curtains  is  ascribed  to  the  year 
340,  when  they  were  required  by  a  canon  formulated  by  Bishop 
Macarius  of  Jerusalem.  Upon  the  altar  are  usually  the  Missal, 
the  Book  of  Gospels,  a  cross  upon  which  the  image  of  Our 
Lord  is  painted  or  engraved  in  low  relief,  and  two  or  more 
candles,  which  are  lighted  as  in  the  Roman  use.  The  Blessed 
Sacrament  is  usually  reserved  in  a  tabernacle  on  the  altar,  and 
a  small  lamp  kept  burning  there  at  all  times.  In  the  choir, 
usually  enclosed  within  a  low  iron  railing,  the  singers  and 
priests  stand  in  lines  while  singing  or  reciting  the  Office.  In 
the  East,  the  worshipper,  upon  entering  the  nave  of  the  church, 
usually  takes  off  his  shoes,  just  as  the  Mohammedans  do,  for 
the  Armenian  founds  this  practice  upon  Ex.,  iii,  5 ;  this  custom 
is  not  followed  in  the  United  States,  nor  do  the  Armenians 
there  sit  cross-legged  upon  the  floor  in  their  churches,  as  they 
do  in  Asia. 

The  administration  of  the  sacraments  is  marked  by  some 


2i8  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

ceremonies  unlike  those  of  the  Roman  or  Greek  Churches, 
and  by  some  which  are  a  composite  of  the  two.    In  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Baptism  the  priest  meets  the  child  carried  in  the  arms 
of  the  nurse  at  the  church  door,  and,  while  reciting  Psalms  li 
and  cxxx,  takes  two  threads  (one  white  and  the  other  red) 
and  twists  them  into  a  cord,   which  he  afterwards  blesses. 
Usually  the  godfather  goes  to  confession  before  the  baptism, 
in  order  that  he  may  fulfil  his  duties  in  the  state  of  grace.  The 
exorcisms  and  renunciations  then  take  place,  and  the  recital  of 
the  Nicene  Creed  and  the  answers  to  the  responses  follow. 
The  baptismal  water  is  blessed,  the  anointing  with  oil  per- 
formed, the  prayers  for  the  catechumen  to  be  baptized  are  said, 
and  then  the  child  is  stripped.    The  priest  takes  the  child  and 
holds  it  in  the  font  so  that  the  body  is  in  the  water,  but  the 
head  is  out,  and  the  baptism  takes  place  in  this  manner:    "N., 
the  servant  of  God  coming  into  the  state  of  a  catechumen  and 
thence  to  that  of  baptism,  is  now  baptized  by  me,  in  the  name 
of  the  Father  [here  he  pours  a  handful  of  water  on  the  head 
of  the  child],  and  of  the  Son  [here  he  pours  water  as  before], 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  [here  he  pours  a  third  handful]."    Af- 
ter this  the  priest  dips  the  child  thrice  under  the  water,  saying 
on  each  occasion :    ''Thou  art  redeemed  by  the  blood  of  Christ 
from  the  bondage  of  sin,  by  receiving  the  liberty  of  sonship  of 
the  Heavenly  Father,  and  becoming  a  co-heir  with  Christ  and  a 
temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost.    Amen."    Then  the  child  is  washed 
and  clothed  again,  generally  with  a  new  and  beautiful  robe, 
and  the  priest  when  washing  the  child  says :     "Ye  that  were 
baptized  in  Christ,  have  put  on  Christ,  Alleluia.    And  ye  that 
have  been  illumined  by  God  the  Father,  may  the  Holy  Ghost 
rejoice  in  you.     Alleluia."     Then  the  passage  of  the  Gospel 
of  St.  Matthew  relating  the  baptism  of  Christ  in  the  Jordan  is 
read,  and  the  rite  thus  completed. 

The  Sacrament  of  Confirmation  is  conferred  by  the  priest 
immediately  after  baptism,  although  the  Catholic  Armenians 
sometimes  reserve  it  for  the  bishop.  The  holy  chrism  is  ap- 
plied by  the  priest  to  the  forehead,  eyes,  ears,  nose,  mouth, 
palms,  heart,  spine  and  feet,  each  time  with  a  reference  to  the 
seal  of  the  Spirit.  Finally,  the  priest  lays  his  hand  upon  and 
makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  the  child's  forehead,  saying: 
"Peace  to  thee,  saved  through  God."  When  the  confirmation 
is  thus  finished,  the  priest  binds  the  child's  forehead  with  the 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  219 

red  and  white  string  which  he  twisted  at  the  beginning  of  the 
baptism,  and  fastens  it  at  the  end  with  a  small  cross.  Then 
he  gives  two  candles,  one  red  and  one  green,  to  the  godfather 
and  has  the  child  brought  up  to  the  altar  where  Communion  is 
given  to  it  by  a  small  drop  of  the  Sacred  Blood,  or,  if  it  be 
not  at  the  time  of  Mass,  by  taking  the  Blessed  Sacrament  from 
the  Tabernacle  and  signing  the  mouth  of  the  child  with  it  in 
the  form  of  the  cross,  saying  in  either  case :  "The  plenitude 
of  the  Holy  Ghost" ;  if  the  candidate  be  an  adult,  full  Com- 
munion is  administered,  and  there  the  confirmation  is  ended. 
The  formula  of  absolution  in  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  is : 
"May  the  merciful  God  have  mercy  upon  you  and  grant  you 
the  pardon  of  all  your  sins,  both  confessed  and  forgotten ;  and 
I  by  virtue  of  my  order  of  priesthood  and  in  force  of  the  power 
granted  by  the  Divine  Command  :  Whosesoever  sins  you  remit 
on  earth  they  are  remitted  unto  them  in  heaven ;  through  that 
same  word  I  absolve  you  from  all  participation  in  sin,  by 
thought,  word  and  deed,  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the 
Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  And  I  again  restore  you  to  the 
sacraments  of  the  Holy  Church;  whatsoever  good  you  shall 
do,  shall  be  counted  to  you  for  merit  and  for  glory  in  the  life 
to  come.  May  the  shedding  of  the  blood  of  the  Son  of  God, 
which  He  shed  upon  the  cross  and  which  delivered  human  na- 
ture from  hell,  deliver  you  from  your  sins.  Amen."  As  a 
rule  Armenians  are  exhorted  to  make  their  confession  and 
communion  on  at  least  five  days  in  the  year :  the  so-called 
Daghavork  or  feasts  of  Tabernacles,  i.  e.,  the  Epiphany,  Eas- 
ter, Transfiguration,  Assumption  and  Exaltation  of  the  Holy 
Cross.  The  first  two  festivals  are  obligatory,  and,  if  an  Ar- 
menian neglects  his  duty,  he  incurs  excommunication.  The 
Sacrament  of  Extreme  Unction  (or  "Unction  with  Oil,"  as  it 
is  called)  is  supposed  to  be  administered  by  seven  priests  in  the 
ancient  form,  but  practically  it  is  performed  by  a  single  priest 
on  most  occasions.  The  eyes,  ears,  nose,  lips,  hands,  feet  and 
heart  of  the  sick  man  are  anointed,  with  this  form :  "I  anoint 
thine  eyes  with  holy  oil,  so  that  whatever  sin  thou  mayst  have 
committed  through  thy  sight,  thou  mayst  be  saved  therefrom 
by  the  anointing  of  this  oil,  through  the  grace  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,"  and  with  a  similar  reference  to  the  other  mem- 
bers anointed. 

The  Divine  Liturgy  or  Mass  is  of  course  the  chief  rite 


220  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

among  the  Armenians,  whether  Catholic  or  Gregorian,  and  it 
is  celebrated  with  a  form  and  ceremonial  which  partakes  in  a 
measure  both  of  the  Roman  and  Byzantine  rites.  As  we  have 
said,  the  curtains  are  used  instead  of  the  altar-rail  or  iconos- 
tasis  of  those  rites,  and  the  vestments  are  also  peculiar.  The 
Armenians,  like  the  Latins,  use  unleavened  bread,  in  the  form 
of  a  wafer  or  small  thin  round  cake,  for  consecration ;  but  like 
the  Greeks  they  prepare  many  wafers,  and  those  not  used  for 
consecration  in  the  Mass  are  given  afterwards  to  the  people  as 
the  antidoron.  The  wine  used  must  be  solely  the  fermented 
juice  of  the  best  grapes  obtainable.  In  the  Gregorian  churches 
Communion  is  given  to  the  people  under  both  species,  the  Host 
being  dipped  in  the  chalice  before  delivering  it  to  the  com- 
municant, but  in  the  Catholic  churches  Communion  is  now 
given  only  in  one  species,  that  of  the  Body,  although  there  is 
no  express  prohibition  against  the  older  form.  On  Christmas 
Eve  and  Easter  Eve  the  Armenians  celebrate  Mass  in  the 
evening;  the  Mass  then  begins  with  the  curtains  drawn  whilst 
the  introductory  psalms  and  prophecies  are  sung,  but,  at  the 
moment  the  great  feast  is  announced  in  the  Introit,  the  cur- 
tains are  withdrawn  and  the  altar  appears  with  full  illumina- 
tion. During  Lent  the  altar  remains  entirely  hidden  by  the 
great  curtains,  and  during  all  the  Sundays  in  Lent,  except 
Palm  Sunday,  Mass  is  celebrated  behind  the  drawn  curtains. 
A  relic  of  this  practice  still  remains  in  the  Roman  Rite,  as 
shown  by  the  veiling  of  the  images  and  pictures  from  Pas- 
sion Sunday  till  Easter  Eve.  The  Armenian  vestments  for 
Mass  are  peculiar  and  splendid.  The  priest  wears  a  crown, 
exactly  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  bishop's  mitre,  which  is  called 
the  Saghavard  or  helmet.  This  is  also  worn  by  the  deacons 
attending  on  a  bishop  at  pontifical  Mass.  The  Armenian  bish- 
ops wear  a  mitre  almost  identical  in  shape  with  the  Latin 
mitre,  and  said  to  have  been  introduced  at  the  time  of  their 
union  with  Rome  in  the  twelfth  century,  when  they  relinquished 
the  Greek  form  of  mitre  for  the  priests  to  wear  in  the  Mass. 
The  celebrant  is  first  vested  with  the  shapik  or  alb,  which  is 
usually  narrower  than  the  Latin  form,  and  usually  of  linen 
(sometimes  of  silk).  He  then  puts  on  each  of  his  arms  the 
baspans  or  cuffs,  which  replace  the  Latin  maniple;  then  the 
ourar  or  stole,  which  is  in  one  piece;  then  the  goti  or  girdle, 
then  the  varkas  or  amice,  which  is  a  large  embroidered  stiff 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  221 

collar  with  a  shoulder  covering  to  it ;  and  finally,  the  shoochar, 
or  chasuble,  which  is  almost  exactly  like  a  Roman  cope.  If  the 
celebrant  be  a  bishop,  he  also  wears  the  gonker  or  Greek  epigo- 
nation.  The  bishops  carry  a  staff  shaped  like  the  Latin,  while 
the  vartaheds  ( deans,  or  doctors  of  divinity ;  analogous  to  the 
Roman  mitred  abbots)  carry  a  staff  in  the  Greek  form  (a  staff 
with  two  intertwined  serpents).  No  organs  are  used  in  the 
Armenian  church,  but  the  elaborate  vocal  music  of  the  Eastern 
style,  sung  by  choir  and  people,  is  accompanied  by  two  metal- 
lic instruments,  the  keshotz  and  sinzgha  (the  first  a  fan  with 
small  bells;  the  second  similar  to  cymbals),  both  of  which  are 
used  during  various  parts  of  the  Mass.  The  deacon  wears 
merely  an  alb  and  a  stole  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  Roman 
Rite.  The  subdeacons  and  lower  clergy  wear  simply  the  alb. 
The  Armenian  Mass  may  be  divided  into  three  parts :  Prep- 
aration, Anaphora  or  Canon  and  Conclusion.  The  first  and 
preparatory  portion  extends  as  far  as  the  Preface,  when  the 
catechumens  are  directed  by  the  deacon  to  leave.  The  Canon 
commences  with  the  conclusion  of  the  Preface  and  ends  with 
the  Communion.  As  soon  as  the  priest  is  robed  in  his  vest- 
ments he  goes  to  the  altar,  washes  his  hands  reciting  Psalm 
xxvi,  and  then  going  to  the  foot  of  the  altar  begins  the  Mass. 
After  saying  the  Intercessory  Prayer,  the  Confiteor  and  the 
Absolution,  which  is  given  with  a  crucifix  in  hand,  he  recites 
Psalm  xlii  (Introibo  ad  altare),  and  at  every  two  verses 
ascends  a  step  of  the  altar.  After  he  has  intoned  the  prayer 
"In  the  tabernacle  of  holiness,"  the  curtains  are  drawn,  and 
the  choir  sings  the  appropriate  hymn  of  the  day.  Meanwhile 
the  celebrant  behind  the  curtain  prepares  the  bread  on  the 
paten  and  fills  the  chalice,  ready  for  the  oblation.  When  this 
is  done  the  curtains  are  withdrawn  and  the  altar  incensed. 
Then  the  Introit  of  the  day  is  sung,  then  the  prayers  corre- 
sponding to  those  of  the  first,  second  and  third  antiphons  of 
the  Byzantine  Rite,  while  the  proper  psalms  are  sung  by  the 
choir.  Then  the  deacon  intones  "Proschume"  (let  us  attend), 
and  elevates  the  book  of  the  gospels,  which  is  incensed  as  he 
brings  it  to  the  altar,  making  the  Little  Entrance.  The  choir 
then  sings  the  Trisagion  (Holy  God,  Holy  and  Mighty,  Holy 
and  Immortal,  have  mercy  on  us)  thrice.  The  Gregorians  in- 
terpolate after  "Holy  and  Immortal"  some  words  descriptive 
of  the  feast  day,  such  as  "who  was  made  manifest  for  us,"  or 


222  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

"who  didst  rise  from  the  dead,"  but  this  addition  has  been 
condemned  at  Rome  as  being  a  rehc  of  the  Patripassian  heresy. 
During  the  Trisagion  the  Kesliotc  is  jingled  in  accompaniment. 
Then  the  Greek  Ektene  or  Litany  is  sung,  and  at  its  conclu- 
sion   the    reader    reads    the    Prophecy;    then    the    Antiphon 
before  the  Epistle  is  sung,  and  the  epistle  of  the  day  read. 
At  the  end  of  each  the  choir  responds  Alleluia.    Then  the  dea- 
con announces  "Orthi"   (stand  up)   and,  taking  the  Gospels, 
reads  or  intones  the  gospel  of  the  day.     Immediately  after- 
wards, the  Armenian  form  of  the  Nicene  Creed  is  said  or  sung. 
It  differs   from  the  creed  as  said  in  the  Roman  and  Greek 
Churches  in  that  it  has,  "consubstantial  with  the  Father  by 
whom  all  things  were  made  in  Heaven  and  in  Earth,  visible 
and  invisible;  who  for  us  men  and  our  salvation  came  down 
from  Heaven,  was  incarnate  and  was  made  man  and  perfectly 
begotten  through  the  Holy  Ghost  of  the  most  Holy  Virgin 
Mary;  he  assumed  from  her  body,  soul,  and  mind,  and  all  that 
in  man  is,  truly  and  not  figuratively" ;  and  "we  believe  also  in 
the  Holy  Ghost,  not  created,  all  perfect,  who  proceedeth  from 
the  Father    (and  the  Son),  ztrho  spake  in  the  Law,  in  the 
Prophets  and  the  Holy  Gospel,  who  descended  into  the  Jordan, 
who  preached  Him  who  was  sent,  and  who  divelt  in  the  Saints," 
and  after  concluding  in  the  ordinary  form  adds  the  sentence  pro- 
nounced by  the  First  Council  of  Nicaea  :    "Those  who  say  there 
was  a  time  when  the  Son  was  not,  or  when  the  Holy  Ghost  was 
not ;  or  that  they  were  created  out  of  nothing ;  or  that  the  Son  of 
God  and  the  Holy  Ghost  are  of  another  substance  or  that  they 
are  mutable;  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  church  condemns." 
Then  the  Confession  of  St.  Gregory  is  intoned  aloud,  and  the 
Little  Ektene  sung.     The  kiss  of  peace  is  here  given  to  the 
clergy.    The  deacon  at  its  close  dismisses  the  catechumens,  and 
the  choir  sings  the  Hymn  of  the  Great  Entrance,  when  the 
bread  and  wine  are  solemnly  brought  to  the  altar.    "The  Body 
of  our  Lord  and  the  Blood  of  our  Redeemer  are  to  be  before 
us.     The  Heavenly  Powers,  invisible,  sing  and  proclaim  with 
uninterrupted  voice,  Holy,  Holy,  Holy,  Lord  God  of  Hosts." 
Here  the  curtains  are  drawn,  and  the  priest  takes  off  his 
crown  (or  the  bishop  his  mitre).    The  priest  incenses  the  holy 
gifts  and  again  washes  his  hands,  repeating  Psalm  xxvi  as 
before.    After  the  salutation  is  sung,  the  catechumens  are  dis- 
missed, and  the  Anaphora  or  Canon  begins.     The  Preface  is 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  223 

said  secretly,  only  the  concluding  part  being  intoned,  to  which 
the  choir  responds  with  the  Sanctus.  The  prayer  before  con- 
secration follows,  with  a  comparison  of  the  Old  and  the  New 
Law,  not  found  in  either  Greek  or  Roman  Rite :  "Holy,  Holy, 
Holy ;  Thou  art  in  truth  most  Holy ;  who  is  there  who  can 
dare  to  describe  by  words  thy  bounties  which  flow  down  upon 
us  without  measure?  For  Thou  didst  protect  and  console  our 
forefathers,  when  they  had  fallen  in  sin,  by  means  of  the 
prophets,  the  Law,  the  priesthood,  and  the  offering  of  bullocks, 
showing  forth  that  which  was  to  come.  And  when  at  length 
He  came,  Thou  didst  tear  in  pieces  the  register  of  our  sins, 
and  didst  bestow  on  us  Thine  Only  Begotten  Son,  the  debtor 
and  the  debt,  the  victim  and  the  anointed,  the  Lamb  and  Bread 
of  Heaven,  the  Priest  and  the  Oblation,  for  He  is  the  distribu- 
tor and  is  always  distributed  amongst  us,  without  being  ex- 
hausted. Being  made  man  truly  and  not  apparently,  and  by 
union  without  confusion,  He  was  incarnate  in  the  womb  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  Mother  of  God,  and  journeyed  through  all  the 
passions  of  human  life,  sin  only  excepted,  and  of  His  own  free 
will  walked  to  the  cross,  whereby  He  gave  life  to  the  world 
and  wrought  salvation  for  us."  Then  follow  the  actual  words 
of  consecration,  which  are  intoned  aloud.  Then  follow  the 
Offering  and  the  Epiklesis,  which  differs  slightly  in  the  Gre- 
gorian and  Catholic  form ;  the  Gregorian  is :  "whereby  Thou 
wilt  make  the  bread  when  blessed  truly  the  body  of  our  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ";  and  the  Catholic  form:  "whereby 
Thou  hast  made  the  bread  when  blessed  truly  the  Body  of  our 
Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ."  As  there  is  actually  no 
blessing  or  consecration  after  the  Epiklesis,  the  Catholic  form 
represents  the  correct  belief.  Then  come  the  prayers  for  the 
living  and  the  dead,  and  an  intoning  by  the  deacons  of  the 
Commemoration  of  the  Saints,  in  which  nearly  all  of  the 
Armenian  saints  are  mentioned.  Then  the  deacon  intones 
aloud  the  Ascription  of  Praise  of  Bishop  Chosroes  the  Great 
in  thanksgiving  for  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar.  After  this 
comes  a  long  Ektene  or  Litany,  and  then  the  Our  Father  is  sung 
by  the  choir.  The  celebrant  then  elevates  the  consecrated 
Host,  saying  "Holy  things  for  Holy  Persons,"  and  when  the 
choir  responds,  he  continues :  "Let  us  taste  in  holiness  the 
holy  and  honorable  Body  and  Blood  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ  who  came  down  from  heaven  and  is  now  distrib- 


224  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

uted  among  us."  Then  the  choir  sings  antiphons  in  honor  of 
the  sacrifice  of  the  Body  and  Blood,  and  the  small  curtain  is 
drawn.  The  priest  kisses  the  sacred  Victim,  saying  "I  con- 
fess and  I  believe  that  Thou  art  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  who 
has  borne  the  sins  of  the  world."  The  Host  is  divided  into 
three  parts,  one  of  which  is  placed  in  the  chalice.  The  choir 
sing  the  communion  hymns  as  appointed ;  the  priest  and  the 
clergy  receive  the  Communion  first,  and  then  the  choir  and 
people.  The  little  curtain  is  withdrawn  when  the  Communion 
is  given,  and  the  great  curtains  are  drawn  back  when  the  peo- 
ple come  up  for  Communion. 

After  Communion,  the  priest  puts  on  his  crown  (or  the 
bishop  his  mitre),  and  the  great  curtains  are  again  drawn. 
Thanksgiving  prayers  are  said  behind  them,  after  which  the 
great  curtains  are  withdrawn  once  more,  and  the  priest  hold- 
ing the  book  of  gospels  says  the  great  prayer  of  peace,  and 
blesses  the  people.  Then  the  deacon  proclaims  "Orthi"  (stand 
up)  and  the  celebrant  reads  the  Last  Gospel,  which  is  nearly 
always  invariable,  being  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  i,  i  sqq. :  "In 
the  beginning  was  the  Word,  etc." ;  the  only  exception  is  from 
Easter  to  the  eve  of  Pentecost,  when  they  use  the  Gospel  of 
St.  John,  xxi,  15-20:  "So  when  they  had  dined,  etc."  Then 
the  prayer  for  peace  and  the  "Kyrie  Eleison"  (thrice)  are  said, 
the  final  benediction  is  given,  and  the  priest  retires  from  the 
altar.  Whilst  Psalm  xxxiv  is  recited  or  sung  by  the  people, 
the  blessed  bread  is  distributed.  The  Catholic  Armenians  con- 
fine this  latter  rite  to  high  festivals  only.  The  chief  editions 
of  the  Gregorian  Armenian  Missals  are  those  printed  at  Con- 
stantinople (1823,  1844),  Jerusalem  (1841,  1873  and  1884), 
and  Etschmiadzin  (1873);  the  chief  Catholic  Armenian  edi- 
tions are  those  of  Venice  (1808,  1874,  1895),  Trieste  (1808), 
and  Vienna  (1858,  1884). 

Armenian  Catholics. — Armenians  had  come  to  the  United 
States  in  small  numbers  prior  to  1895.  In  that  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  Turkish  massacres  took  place  throughout  Ar- 
menia and  Asia  Minor,  and  large  numbers  of  Armenians  emi- 
grated to  America.  Among  them  were  many  Armenian  Catho- 
lics, although  these  were  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  organize 
any  religious  communities  like  their  Gregorian  brethren.  In 
1898  Mgr.  Stephan  Azarian  (Stephen  X),  then  Catholic  Pa- 
triarch of  Cilicia  of  the  Armenians,  who  resided  in  Constanti- 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  225 

nople,  entered  into  negotiations  with  Cardinal  Ledochowski, 
Prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda,  and  through 
him  obtained  the   consent  of   Archbishop   Corrigan   of   New 
York  and  Archbishop  Williams  of  Boston  for  priests  of  the 
Armenian  Rite  to  labor  in  their  respective  provinces  for  the 
Armenian  Catholics  who  had  come  to  this  country.    He  sent  as 
the  first  Armenian  missionary  the  Very  Reverend  Archpriest 
Mardiros   Mighirian,  who  had  been  educated  at  the   Propa- 
ganda and  the  Armenian  College,  and  arrived  in  the  United 
States  on  Ascension  Day,  May  11,  1899.    He  at  first  went  to 
Boston,  where  he  assembled  a  small  congregation  of  Armenian 
Catholics,  and  later  proceeded  to  New  York  to  look  after  the 
spiritual  welfare  of  the  Catholic  Armenians  in  Manhattan  and 
Brooklyn.    He  also  established  a  mission  station  in  Worcester, 
Massachusetts.     In  New  York  and  Brooklyn  the  Catholics  of 
the  Armenian  Rite  are  divided  into  those  who  speak  Armenian 
and  those  who,  coming  from  places  outside  of  the  historic  Ar- 
menia, speak  the  Arabic  language.    At  present  this  missionary 
is  stationed  at   St.   Stephen's  Church   in   East  Twenty-eighth 
Street,  since  large  numbers  of  Armenians  live  in  that  vicinity, 
but  has  another  congregation  under  his  charge  in  Brooklyn. 
All  these  Catholic  Armenians  are  too  poor  to  build  any  church 
or  chapel  of  their  own,  and  use  the  basement  portion  of  the 
Latin  churches.    Towards  the  end  of  1906  another  Armenian 
priest,  Rev.  Manuel  Basieganian,  commenced  mission  work  in 
Paterson,  New  Jersey,    and    now    attends    mission    stations 
throughout  New  England,  New  Jersey  and  Eastern  Pennsyl- 
vania.    In  1908  Rev.  Hovsep  (Joseph)   Keossajian  settled  in 
Lawrence,    Massachusetts,    and   established   a   chapel    in    St. 
Mary's  Church.    He  also  ministers  to  the  spiritual  wants  of  the 
Armenian  Catholics  at  Boston,  Cambridge,  East  Watertown, 
Newton,  Lynn,  Chelsea  and  Lowell.    In  1909  Rev.  Moses  Ma- 
zarian  took  charge  of  the  Armenian   mission  at   Cleveland, 
Ohio,  and  in  the  cities  throughout  the  west.     None  of  these 
have  been  able  to  build  independent  Armenian  churches,  but 
usually  hold  their  services  in  the  Roman  Catholic  churches. 
Besides  the  places  already  mentioned  there  are  slender  Arme- 
nian Catholic  congregations  at  Haverhill,  Worcester,  Fitch- 
burg,  Milford,  Fall  River,  Holyoke  and  Whiting,  in  Massa- 
chusetts ;  Nashua  and  Manchester,  in  New  Hampshire ;  Provi- 
dence, Pawtucket  and  Central  Falls,  in  Rhode  Island;  New 


22(i  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Britain  and  Bridgeport,  in  Connecticut ;  Jersey  City,  West  Ho- 
boken  and  Newark,  in  New  Jersey ;  and  Philadelphia  and  Chi- 
cago. The  number  of  Catholic  Armenians  in  the  United  States 
is  very  small,  being  estimated  at  about  2,000  to  2,500  all  told. 
So  many  of  them  reside  among  the  other  Armenians  and  fre- 
quent their  churches,  that  there  may  be  more  who  do  not  pro- 
fess themselves  Catholics,  and  purely  Armenian  chapels  would 
doubtless  bring  to  light  many  whom  the  mission  priests  on  their 
rounds  do  not  reach. 

Gregorian  Armenians. — Inasmuch  as  Armenia  was  con- 
verted to  the  faith  of  St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator,  the  Arme- 
nians who  are  not  in  union  with  the  Holy  See  pride  themselves 
upon  the  fact  that  they  more  truly  hold  the  faith  preached  by 
St.  Gregory  and  they  are  accordingly  called  Gregorians,  since 
the  word  "Orthodox"  would  be  likely  to  confuse  them  with  the 
Greeks.  By  reason  of  the  many  schools  founded  in  Armenia 
and  in  Constantinople  by  American  Protestant  missionaries, 
their  attention  was  turned  to  America,  and,  when  the  massa- 
cres of  1895-96  took  place,  large  numbers  came  to  the  United 
States.  Many  of  them  belonged  to  the  Protestant  Armenian 
Church,  and  identified  themselves  with  the  Congregationalists 
or  Presbyterians ;  but  the  greater  number  of  them  belonged  to 
the  national  Gregorian  Church.  In  1889  Rev.  Hovsep  Sara- 
jian,  a  priest  from  Constantinople,  was  sent  to  the  Armenians 
in  Massachusetts,  and  a  church  which  was  built  in  Worcester 
in  1891  is  still  the  headquarters  of  the  Armenian  Church  in 
the  United  States.  The  emigration  increasing  greatly  after 
the  massacres,  Father  Sarajian  was  reinforced  by  several  other 
Armenian  priests;  in  1898  he  was  made  bishop,  and  in  1903 
was  invested  with  archiepiscopal  authority,  having  Canada  and 
the  United  States  under  his  jurisdiction.  Seven  great  pasto- 
rates were  organized  to  serve  as  the  nuclei  of  future  dioceses : 
at  Worcester,  Boston  and  Lawrence  (Massachusetts),  New 
York,  Providence  (Rhode  Island),  Fresno  (CaHfornia)  and 
Chicago  (Illinois).  To  these  was  added  West  Hoboken  in 
1906.  There  are  numerous  congregations  and  mission  stations 
in  various  cities.  Churches  have  been  built  in  Worcester, 
Fresno  and  West  Hoboken ;  in  Boston  and  Providence  halls 
are  rented,  and  in  other  places  arrangements  are  often  made 
with  Episcopal  churches  where  their  services  are  held.  The 
Gregorian  Armenian  clergy  comprises  the  archbishop,  seven 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  227 

resident  and  three  missionary  priests,  while  the  number  of 
Gregorian  Armenians  is  given  at  20,000  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  several  Armenian  societies  and  two  Armenian  news- 
papers and  also  Armenian  reading-rooms  in  several  places. 


II. — Byzantine  or  Greek  Rite 

This  rite,  reckoning  both  the  Catholic  and  Schismatic 
Churches,  comes  next  in  expansion  through  the  Christian 
world  to  the  Roman  Rite.  It  also  ranks  next  to  the  Roman 
Rite  in  America,  there  being  now  (1911)  about  156  Greek 
Catholic  churches,  and  about  149  Greek  Orthodox  churches  in 
the  United  States.^  The  Eastern  Orthodox  Churches  of  Rus- 
sia, Turkey,  Rumania,  Servia  and  Bulgaria  and  other  places 
where  they  are  found,  make  up  a  total  of  about  120,000,000, 
while  the  Uniat  Churches  of  the  same  rite,  the  Greek  Catholics 
in  Austria,  Hungary,  Italy,  Bulgaria,  Asia  and  elsewhere, 
amount  to  upwards  of  7,500,000.  Unlike  the  Armenian  Rite, 
it  has  not  been  confined  to  any  particular  people  or  language, 
but  has  spread  over  the  entire  Christian  Orient  among  the 
Slavic,  Rumanian  and  Greek  populations.  As  regards  juris- 
diction and  authority,  it  has  not  been  united  and  homogeneous 
like  the  Roman  Rite,  nor  has  it,  like  the  Latin  Church,  been 
uniform  in  language,  calendar,  or  particular  customs,  although 
the  same  general  teaching,  ritual  and  observances  have  been 
followed.  The  principal  languages  in  which  the  liturgy  of 
the  Greek  Rite  is  celebrated  are  (i)  Greek,  (2)  Slavonic, 
(3)  Arabic,  and  (4)  Rumanian.  It  is  also  celebrated  in 
Gregorian  by  a  small  and  diminishing  number  of  worshippers, 
and  sometimes  experimentally  in  a  number  of  modern  tongues 
for  missionary  purposes ;  but,  as  this  latter  use  has  never  been 
approved,  the  four  languages  named  above  may  be  considered 
the  official  ones  of  the  Byzantine  Rite.  A  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation of  all  the  nations  which  use  this  rite,  follow  it  in  union 
with  the  Holy  See,  and  these  have  by  their  union  placed  the 
Byzantine  Rite  in  the  position  which  it  occupied  before  the 
schism  of  1054.  Thus,  the  Russians,  Bulgarians  and  Servians, 
who  are  schismatic,  use  the  Old  Slavonic  in  their  church  books 
and  services ;  so  likewise  do  the  Catholic  Ruthenians,  Bul- 
garians and  Servians.     Likewise  the  Rumanians  of  Rumania 


228  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

and  Transylvania,  who  are  schismatic,  use  the  Rumanian  lan- 
guage in  the  Greek  Rite ;  but  the  Rumanians  of  Transylvania, 
who  are  Catholic,  do  the  same.  The  Orthodox  Greeks  of 
Greece  and  Turkey  use  the  original  Greek  of  their  rite ;  but 
the  Italo-Greeks  of  Italy  and  Sicily  and  the  Greeks  of  Con- 
stantinople, who  are  Catholic,  use  it  also.  The  Syro-Arabians 
of  Syria  and  Egypt,  who  are  schismatic,  use  the  Arabic  in  the 
Greek  Rite ;  but  the  Catholic  Melchites  likewise  use  it. 

The  numerous  emigrants  from  these  countries  to  America 
have  brought  with  them  their  Byzantine  Rite  with  all  its  local 
peculiarities  and  its  language.  In  some  respects  the  environ- 
ment of  a  people  professing  the  Greek  Rite  in  union  with  the 
Holy  See  but  in  close  touch  with  their  countrymen  of  the 
Roman  Rite  has  tended  to  change  in  unimportant  particulars 
several  of  the  ceremonies  and  sometimes  particular  phrases  of 
the  rite,  but  not  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  various  Schismatic 
Churches  have  changed  the  language  and  ceremonies  in  their 
several  national  Churches.  Where  this  has  occurred  in  the 
Greek  Churches  united  with  the  Holy  See,  it  has  been  fiercely 
denounced  as  latinizing,  but,  where  it  has  occurred  in  Russia, 
Bulgaria  or  Syria,  it  is  simply  regarded  by  the  same  de- 
nouncers as  a  mere  expression  of  nationalism.  There  is  in 
the  aggregate  a  larger  number  of  Catholics  of  the  Byzantine 
Rite  in  America  than  of  the  Orthodox.  The  chief  nationali- 
ties there  which  are  Catholic  are  the  Ruthenians,  Rumanians, 
Alelchites  and  Italo-Greeks ;  the  principal  Orthodox  ones  are 
the  Russians,  Greeks,  Syro-Arabians,  Servians,  Rumanians, 
Bulgarians  and  Albanians.  As  emigration  from  those  lands 
increases  daily,  and  the  representatives  of  those  rites  are  in- 
creasing in  numbers  and  prosperity,  a  still  wider  expansion 
of  the  Greek  Rite  in  the  United  States  may  be  expected.  Al- 
ready the  Russian  Orthodox  Church  has  a  strong  hierarchy, 
an  ecclesiastical  seminary  and  monasteries,  supported  chiefly 
by  the  Holy  Synod  and  the  Orthodox  Missionary  Society  of 
Russia,  and  much  proselytizing  is  carried  on  among  the  Greek 
Catholics.  The  latter  are  not  in  such  a  favorable  position  ;  they 
have  no  home  governmental  support,  but  have  had  to  build 
and  equip  their  own  institutions  out  of  their  own  slender 
means.  The  Holy  See  has  provided  a  bishop  for  them,  but 
the  Russians  have  stirred  up  dissensions  and  made  his  position 
as  difficult  as  possible  among  his  own  people.     The  Hellenic 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  229 

Greek  Orthodox  Church  expects  soon  to  have  its  own  Greek 
bishop,  and  the  Servians  and  Rumanians  also  expect  a  bishop 
to  be  appointed  by  their  home  authorities. 


III. — Maronite  Rite 

The  Maronite  is  one  of  the  Syrian  rites  and  has  been  closely 
assimilated  in  the  Church  to  the  Roman  Rite.  Unlike  the 
Syro-Chaldean  or  the  Syro-Catholic  rites,  for  they  all  use  the 
Syriac  language  in  the  Mass  and  liturgy,  it  has  not  kept  the 
old  forms  intact,  but  has  modelled  itself  more  and  more  upon 
the  Roman  Rite.  Among  all  the  Eastern  rites  which  are  now 
in  communion  with  the  Holy  See,  it  alone  has  no  Schismatic 
rite  of  corresponding  form  and  language,  but  is  wholly  united 
and  Catholic,  thereby  differing  also  from  the  other  Syrian 
rites.  The  liturgical  language  is  the  ancient  Syriac  or  Ara- 
maic, and  the  Maronites,  as  well  as  all  other  rites  who  use 
Syriac,  take  especial  pride  in  the  fact  that  they  celebrate  the 
Mass  in  the  very  language  which  Christ  spoke  while  He  was 
on  earth,  as  evidenced  by  some  fragments  of  His  very  words 
still  preserved  in  the  Greek  text  of  the  Gospels  (e.g.,  in  Matt, 
xxvii,  46,  and  Mark  v,  41).  The  Syriac  is  a  Semitic  language 
closely  related  to  the  Hebrew,  and  is  sometimes  called  Ara- 
maic from  the  Hebrew  word  Aram  (Northern  Syria).  As  the 
use  of  Ancient  Hebrew  died  out  after  the  Babylonian  captivity, 
the  Syriac  or  Aramaic  took  its  place,  very  much  as  Italian  has 
supplanted  Latin  throughout  the  Italian  peninsula.  This  was 
substantially  the  situation  at  the  time  of  Christ's  teaching  and 
the  foundation  of  the  early  Church.  Syriac  is  now  a  dead 
language,  and  in  the  Maronite  service  and  liturgy  bears  the 
same  relation  to  the  vernacular  Arabic  as  the  Latin  in  the 
Roman  Rite  does  to  the  modern  languages  of  the  people.  It 
is  written  with  a  peculiar  alphabet,  reads  from  right  to  left 
like  the  Hebrew  or  Arabic  languages,  but  its  letters  are  unlike 
the  current  alphabets  of  either  of  these  languages.  To  sim- 
plify the  Maronite  Missals.  Breviary  and  other  service  books, 
the  vernacular  Arabic  is  often  employed  for  the  rubrics  and 
for  many  of  the  best-known  prayers ;  it  is  written,  not  in 
Arabic  characters,  but  in  Syriac,  and  this  mingled  language 
and  alphabet  is  called  Karshuni.     The  Epistle,  Gospel,  Creed 


230  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

and   Pater  Noster  are  nearly  always  given  in   Karslumi,  in- 
stead of  the  original  Arabic. 

The  form  of  the  Liturgy  or  Mass  is  that  of  St.  James,  so 
called  because  of  the  tradition  that  it  originated  with  St.  James 
the  Less,  Apostle  and  Bishop  of  Jerusalem.     It  is  the  type 
form  of  the  Syriac  Rite,  but  the  Maronite  Use  has  accommo- 
dated it  more  and  more  to  the  Roman.     This   form  of  the 
Liturgy  of  St.  James  constitutes  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass, 
which  is  always  said  in  the  same  manner,  merely  changing  the 
epistles  and  gospels  according  to  the  Christian  year.     But  the 
Syrians,  whether  of  the  Maronite,  Syrian,  Catholic  or  Syro- 
Chaldaic  rite,  have  the  peculiarity   (not  found  in  other  litur- 
gies) of  inserting  different  anaphoras  or  canons  of  the  Mass, 
composed  at  various  times  by  different  Syrian  saints;  these 
change   according   to   the    feast   celebrated,    somewhat   analo- 
gously to  the  Preface  in  the  Roman  Rite.     The  principal  an- 
aphoras or  canons  of  the  Mass  used  by  the  Maronites  are:  (i) 
the  Anaphora  according  to  the  Order  of  the  Holy  Catholic  and 
Roman   Church,  the   Mother  of  all   the   Churches;    (2)    the 
Anaphora  of  St.  Peter,  the  Head  of  the  Apostles;   (3)   the 
Anaphora  of  the  Twelve  Apostles ;  (4)  the  Anaphora  of  St. 
James  the  Apostle,  brother  of  the  Lord;  (5)  the  Anaphora  of 
St.  John  the  Apostle  and  Evangelist;    (6)    the  Anaphora  of 
St.  Mark  the  EvangeHst ;  (7)  the  Anaphora  of  St.  Xystus,  the 
Pope  of  Rome;  (8)  the  Anaphora  of  St.  John  surnamed  Maro, 
from  whom  they  derive  their  name;  (9)  the  Anaphora  of  St. 
John  Chrysostom;  (10)  the  Anaphora  of  St.  Basil;  (11)  the 
Anaphora  of  St.  Cyril;  (12)  the  Anaphora  of  St.  Dionysius; 
(13)  the  Anaphora  of  John  of  Harran,  and  (14)  the  Anaphora 
of  Marutha  of  Tagrith.     Besides  these  they  have  also  a  form 
of  liturgy  of  the  Presanctified   for  Good  Friday,  after   the 
Roman  custom.     Frequent  use  of  incense  is  a  noticeable  fea- 
ture of  the  Maronite  Mass.  and  not  even  in  low  Mass  is  the 
incense  omitted.     In  their  form  of  church  building  the  Maro- 
nites have  nothing  special  like  the  Greeks  with  their  iconostasis 
and  square  altar,  or  the  Armenians  with  their  curtains,  but 
build  their  churches  very  much  as  Latins  do.    While  the  sacred 
vestments  are  hardly  distinguishable  from  those  of  the  Roman 
Church,  in  some  respects  they  approach  the  Greek  form.    The 
alb,  the  girdle  and  the  maniple  or  cuffs  on  each  hand,  a  peculiar 
form  of  amice,  the  stole  (sometimes  in  Greek  and  sometimes 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  231 

in  Roman  form),  and  the  ordinary  Roman  chasuble  make  up 
the  vestments  worn  by  the  priest  at  Mass.  Bishops  use  a 
cross,  mitre  and  staff  of  the  Roman  form.  The  sacred  vessels 
used  on  the  altar  are  the  chalice,  paten  or  disk,  and  a  small 
star  or  asterisk  to  cover  the  consecrated  Host.  They,  like  us, 
use  a  small  cross  or  crucifix,  with  a  long  silken  banner  attached, 
for  giving  the  blessings.  The  Maronites  use  unleavened  bread 
and  have  a  round  Host,  as  in  the  Roman  Rite. 

The  Maronite  Mass  commences  with  the  ablution  and  vest- 
ing at  the  foot  of  the  altar.  Then,  standing  at  the  middle  of 
the  sanctuary,  the  priest  recites  Psalm  xlii,  "Introibo  ad  al- 
tare,"  moving  his  head  in' the  form  of  a  cross.  He  then 
ascends  the  altar,  takes  the  censer  and  incenses  both  the  uri- 
covered  chalice  and  paten,  then  takes  up  the  Host  and  has  it 
incensed,  puts  it  on  the  paten  and  has  the  corporals  and  veils 
incensed.  He  next  pours  wine  in  the  chalice,  adding  a  little 
water,  and  then  incenses  it  and  covers  both  Host  and  chalice 
with  the  proper  veils.  Then,  going  again  to  the  foot  of  the 
altar,  he  says  aloud  the  first  prayer  in  Arabic,  which  is  followed 
by  an  antiphon.  The  strange  Eastern  music,  with  its  harsh 
sounds  and  quick  changes,  is  a  marked  feature  of  the  Maronite 
Rite.  The  altar,  the  elements,  the  clergy,  servers  and  people  are 
incensed,  and  the  Kyrie  Eleison  (Kurrilison)  and  the  "Holy 
God,  Holy  strong  one,  etc.,"  are  sung  by  choir  and  people. 
Then  comes  the  Pater  Noster  in  Arabic,  with  the  response: 
"For  thine  is  the  kingdom  and  the  power  and  the  glory,  world 
without  end.  Amen."  The  celebrant  and  deacon  intone  the 
Synapte  for  peace,  which  is  followed  by  a  short  form  of  the 
Gloria  in  excelsis:  "Glory  be  to  God  on  high,  and  on  earth 
peace  and  good  hope  to  the  sons  of  men,"  etc.  The  Phrumiur 
is  then  said ;  this  is  an  introductory  prayer,  and  always  comes 
before  the  Sedro,  which  is  a  prayer  of  praise  said  aloud  by  the 
priest  standing  before  the  altar  while  the  censer  is  swung.  It 
is  constructed  by  the  insertion  of  verses  into  a  more  or  less 
constant  framework,  commemorative  of  the  feast  or  season,  and 
seems  to  be  a  survival  of  the  old  psalm  verses  with  the  Gloria. 
For  instance,  a  Sedro  of  Our  Lady  will  commemorate  her  in 
many  ways,  something  like  our  litany,  but  more  poetically  and 
at  length ;  one  of  Our  Lord  will  celebrate  Him  in  His  nativity, 
baptism,  etc.  Then  come  the  commemorations  of  the  Proph- 
ets, the  Apostles,  the  martyrs,  of  all  the  saints,  and  lastly  the 


232  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

commemoration  of  the  departed :  "Be  ye  not  sad,  all  ye  who 
sleep  in  the  dust,  and  in  the  decay  of  your  bodies.  The  living 
Body  which  you  have  eaten  and  the  saving  Blood  which  you 
have  drunk,  can  again  vivify  all  of  you,  and  clothe  your  bodies 
with  glory.  O  Christ,  Who  hast  come  and  given  peace  by  Thy 
Blood  to  the  heights  and  the  depths,  give  rest  to  the  souls  of 
Thy  servants  in  the  promised  life  everlasting!"  The  priest 
then  prays  for  the  living,  and  makes  special  intercession  by 
name  of  those  living  or  dead  for  whom  the  Mass  is  offered. 
He  blesses  and  offers  the  sacred  elements,  in  a  form  somewhat 
analogous .  to  the  Offertory  in  the  Roman  Rite.  Another 
Phrumiur  and  the  great  Sedro  of  St.  Ephraem  or  St.  James  is 
said,  in  which  the  whole  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  foreshadowed. 
The  psalm  preparatory  to  the  Epistle  in  Arabic  is  recited,  and 
the  epistle  of  the  day  then  read.  The  Alleluia  and  gradual 
psalm  is  recited,  the  Book  of  Gospels  incensed,  and  the  Gospel, 
also  in  Arabic,  intoned  or  read.  The  versicles  of  thanksgiving 
for  the  Gospel  are  intoned,  at  several  parts  of  which  the  priest 
and  deacon  and  precentor  chant  in  unison.  The  Nicene  Creed, 
said  in  unison  by  priest  and  deacon,  follows,  and  immediately 
after  the  celebrant  washes  his  hands  saying  Psalm  xxvi.  This 
ends  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass. 

The  Anaphora,  or  Canon  of  the  Mass,  is  then  begun,  and 
varies  according  to  season,  place  and  celebrant.  In  the  An- 
aphora of  the  Holy  Catholic  and  Roman  Church,  which  is  a 
typical  one,  the  Mass  proceeds  with  the  prayers  for  peace  very 
much  as  they  stand  at  the  end  of  the  Roman  Mass ;  then  follow 
prayers  of  confession,  adoration  and  glory,  which  conclude  by 
giving  the  kiss  of  peace  to  the  deacon  and  the  other  clergy. 
The  Preface  follows:  "Let  us  Hft  up  our  thoughts,  our  con- 
science and  our  hearts!  I^.  They  are  lifted  up  to  Thee,  O 
Lord !  P.  Let  us  give  thanks  to  the  Lord  in  fear,  and  adore 
Him  with  trembling.  ^.  It  is  meet  and  just.  P.  To  Thee, 
O  God  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  and  Jacob,  O  glorious  and  holy 
King  of  Israel,  for  ever!  1^.  Glory  be  to  the  Father  and  the 
Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  now  and  forever,  world  without  end. 
I^.  Before  the  glorious  and  divine  mysteries  of  our  Redeemer, 
with  the  pleasant  things  which  are  imposed,  let  us  implore  the 
mercy  of  the  Lord  !  ^.  It  is  meet  and  just"  (and  the  Preface 
continues  secretly).  Then  the  Sanctus  is  sung,  and  the  Conse- 
cration immediately  follows.     The  words  of  Consecration  are 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  233 

intoned  aloud,  the  choir  answering  "Amen."  After  the  suc- 
ceeding prayer  of  commemoration  of  the  Resurrection  and 
hope  of  the  Second  Coming  and  a  prayer  for  mercy,  the  Epi- 
klesis  is  said :  "How  tremendous  is  this  hour  and  how  awful 
this  moment,  my  beloved,  in  which  the  Holy  and  Life-giving 
Spirit  comes  down  from  on  high  and  descends  upon  this  Eu- 
charist which  is  placed  in  this  sanctuary  for  our  reconciliation. 
With  silence  and  fear  stand  and  pray!  Salvation  to  us  and 
the  peace  of  God  the  Father  of  all  of  us.  Let  us  cry  out  and 
say  thrice:  Have  mercy  on  us,  O  Lord,  and  send  down  the 
Holy  and  Life-giving  Spirit  upon  us!  Hear  me,  O  Lord!  and 
let  Thy  living  and  Holy  Spirit  descend  upon  me  and  upon  this 
sacrifice !  and  so  complete  this  mystery,  that  it  be  the  Body  of 
Christ  our  God  for  our  redemption!"  The  prayers  for  the 
Pope  of  Rome,  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  and  all  the  metro- 
politans and  bishops  and  orthodox  professors  and  believers  of 
the  Catholic  Faith  immediately  follow.  This  in  turn  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  long  prayer  by  the  deacon  for  tranquillity,  peace 
and  the  commemoration  of  all  the  saints  and  doctors  of  the 
early  Church  and  of  Syria,  including  St.  John  Maro,  with  the 
petition  for  the  dead  at  the  end.  Then  comes  the  solemn  offer- 
ing of  the  Body  and  the  Blood  for  the  sins  of  priest  and  people, 
concluding  with  the  words :  "Thy  Body  and  Thy  Holy  Blood 
are  the  way  which  leads  to  the  Kingdom !"  The  adoration  and 
the  fraction  follow ;  then  the  celebrant  elevates  the  chalice  to- 
gether with  the  Host,  and  says :  "O  desirable  sacrifice  which 
is  offered  for  us !  O  victim  of  reconciliation,  which  the  Father 
obtained  in  Thy  own  person !  O  Lamb,  Who  wast  the  same 
person  as  the  High  Priest  who  sacrificed!"  Then  he  genu- 
flects and  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  over  the  chalice:  "Be- 
hold the  Blood  which  was  shed  upon  Golgotha  for  my  redemp- 
tion; because  of  it  receive  my  supplication."  The  "Sanctus 
fortis"  is  again  sung,  and  the  celebrant  lifts  the  Sacred  Body 
on  high  and  says :  "Holy  things  for  holy  persons,  in  purity 
and  holiness !"  The  fraction  of  the  Host  follows  after  several 
prayers,  and  the  priest  mingles  a  particle  with  the  Blood,  re- 
ceives the  Body  and  the  Blood  himself,  and  gives  communion 
to  the  clergy  and  then  to  the  people.  When  it  is  finished  he 
makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  the  paten  and  blesses  the 
people. 

Then  follow  a  synapte  (litany)  of  thanksgiving,  and  a  sec- 


234  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

ond  signing  of  the  people  with  both  paten  and  chalice,  after 
which  the  priest  consumes  all  the  remaining  species,  saying 
afterwards  the  prayers  at  the  purification  and  ablution.  The 
prayer  of  blessing  and  protection  is  said,  and  the  people  and 
choir  sing :  "Alleluia  !  Alleluia !  I  have  fed  upon  Thy  Body 
and  by  Thy  living  Blood  I  am  reconciled,  and  I  have  sought 
refuge  in  Thy  Cross !  Through  these  may  I  please  Thee,  O 
Good  Lord,  and  grant  Thou  mercy  to  the  sinners  who  call 
upon  Thee !"  Then  they  sing  the  final  hymn  of  praise,  which 
in  this  anaphora  contains  the  words :  "By  the  prayers  of 
Simon  Peter,  Rome  was  made  the  royal  city,  and  she  shall  not 
be  shaken!"  Then  the  people  all  say  or  sing  the  Lord's 
Prayer;  when  it  is  finished,  the  final  benediction  is  given,  and 
the  priest,  coming  again  to  the  foot  of  the  altar,  takes  oflE  his 
sacred  vestments  and  proceeds  to  make  his  thanksgiving. 

Maronites  in  America. — The  Maronites  are  chiefly  from  the 
various  districts  of  Mount  Lebanon  and  from  the  city  of  Bei- 
rut, and  were  at  first  hardly  distinguishable  from  the  other 
Syrians  and  Arabic-speaking  persons  who  came  to  America. 
At  first  they  were  merely  peddlers  and  small  traders,  chiefly  in 
religious  and  devotional  articles,  but  they  soon  got  into  other 
lines  of  business  and  at  present  possess  many  well-established 
business  enterprises.  Not  only  are  they  established  in  the 
United  States,  but  they  have  also  spread  to  Mexico  and  Can- 
ada, and  have  several  fairly  large  colonies  in  Brazil,  Argen- 
tine and  Uruguay.  Their  numbers  in  the  United  States  are 
variously  estimated  from  100,000  to  120,000,  including  the 
native-born.  Many  of  them  have  become  prosperous  mer- 
chants and  are  now  American  citizens.  Several  Maronite 
families  of  title  (Emir)  have  emigrated  and  made  their  homes 
in  the  United  States ;  among  them  are  the  Emirs  Al-Kazen, 
Al-Khouri,  Abi-Saab  and  others.  There  is  also  the  well-known 
Arabic  novelist  of  the  present  day,  Madame  Karam  Hanna 
(Afifa  Karam)  of  Shreveport,  Louisiana,  formerly  of  Amshid, 
Mount  Lebanon,  who  not  only  writes  entertaining  fiction,  but 
touches  on  educational  topics  and  even  women's  rights.  Na- 
hum  Mokarzel,  a  graduate  of  the  Jesuit  College  of  Beirut,  is 
a  clever  writer  both  in  Arabic  and  English.  The  Maronites 
are  established  in  New  York,  the  New  England  States,  Penn- 
sylvania, Minnesota  and  Alabama.  The  first  Maronite  priest 
to  visit  the  United  States  was  Rev.  Joseph  Mokarzel,  who 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  235 

arrived  in  1879,  but  did  not  remain.  Very  Rev.  Louis  Kazen, 
of  Port  Said,  Egypt,  came  later,  but,  as  there  were  very  few 
of  his  countrymen,  he  likewise  returned.  On  6  August,  1890, 
the  Rev.  Butrosv  Korkemas  came  to  establish  a  permanent  mis- 
sion, and  after  considerable  difficulty  rented  a  tiny  chapel  in  a 
store  on  Washington  Street,  New  York  City.  He  was  accom- 
panied by  his  nephew.  Rev.  Joseph  Yasbek,  then  in  deacon's  or- 
ders, who  was  later  ordained  to  the  priesthood  by  Archbishop 
Corrigan,  and  founded  the  Maronite  mission  in  Boston;  he  is 
now  Chor-Bishop  of  the  Maronites  and  practically  the  head 
of  that  rite  in  America. 

A  church  was  later  established  in  Philadelphia,  then  one  in 
Troy  and  one  in  Brooklyn,  after  which  the  Maronites  branched 
out  to  other  cities.    At  present  (1911)  there  are  fifteen  Maro- 
nite churches  in  the  United  States:  in  New  York,  Brooklyn, 
Troy,   Buffalo,   Boston,   Lawrence,   Springfield,   Philadelphia, 
Scranton,  St.  Paul,  St.  Louis,  Birmingham,  Chicago,  Wheel- 
ing and  Cleveland.     Meanwhile  new  congregations  are  being 
formed  in  smaller  cities,  and  are  regularly  visited  by  mission- 
ary priests.     The  Maronite  clergy  is  composed  of  two  chor- 
bishops    (deans   vested   with   certain   episcopal   powers)    and 
twenty-three  other  priests,  of  whom  five  are  Antonine  monks. 
In  Mexico  there  are  three  Maronite  chapels  and  four  priests. 
In  Canada  there  is  a  Maronite  chapel  at  New  Glasgow  and 
one    resident    priest.      There    are    only    two    Arabic-English 
schools,  in  New  York  and  St.  Louis,  since  many  of  the  Maro- 
nite children  go  to  the  ordinary  Catholic  or  to  the  public 
schools.    There  are  no  general  societies  or  clubs  with  religious 
objects,  although  there  is  a  Syrian  branch  of  the  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul  Society.    About  fifteen  years  ago  Nahum  A.  Mokarzel 
founded  and  now  publishes  in  New  York  City  the  daily  news- 
paper, "Al  Hoda"   (The  Guidance),  which  is  now  the  best- 
known  Arabic  newspaper  in  the  world  and  the  only  illustrated 
one.    His  brother  also  publishes  an  Arabic  monthly  magazine, 
"Al  Alam  ul  Jadia"  (The  New  World),  which  contains  modern 
Arabic  literature  and  translations  of  American  and  English 
writers.     There  are  also  two  Maronite  papers  published  in 
Mexico.    The  Maronites  also  have  in  New  York  a  publishing 
house  on  a  small  scale,  in  which  novels,  pamphlets  and  scien- 
tific and  religious  works  are  printed  in  Arabic,  and  the  usual 
Arabic  literature  sold. 


236  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 


IV. — Other  Oriental  Rites 

The  rites  already  described  are  the  principal  rites  to  be  met 
with  in  the  United  States ;  but  there  are  besides  them  a  few 
representatives  of  the  remaining  Eastern  rites,  although  these 
are  perhaps  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  maintain  their  own 
churches  or  to  constitute  separate  ecclesiastical  entities. 
Among  these  smaller  bodies  are :  ( i )  the  Chaldean  Catholics 
and  the  schismatic  Christians  of  the  same  rite,  known  as  Nes- 
torians;  (2)  the  Syrian  Catholics  or  Syro-Catholics  and  their 
correlative  dissenters,  the  Jacobites,  and  (3)  finally  the  Copts, 
CathoHc  or  Orthodox.  All  of  these  have  a  handful  of  repre- 
sentatives in  America,  and,  as  immigration  increases,  it  is  a 
question  how  great  their  numbers  will  become. 

( I )  Chaldean  or  Syro-Chaldean  Catholic  Rite. — Those  who 
profess  this  rite  are  Eastern  Syrians,  coming  from  what  was 
anciently  Mesopotamia,  but  is  now  the  borderland  of  Persia. 
They  ascribe  the  origin  of  the  rite  to  two  of  the  early  disciples^ 
Addeus  and  Maris,  who  first  preached  the  Gospel  in  their 
lands.  It  is  really  a  remnant  of  the  early  Persian  Church, 
and  it  has  always  used  the  Syriac  language  in  its  liturgy.  The 
peculiar  Syriac  which  it  uses  is  known  as  the  eastern  dialect, 
as  distinguished  from  that  used  in  the  Maronite  and  Syro- 
Catholic  rites,  which  is  the  western  dialect.  The  method  of 
writing  this  church  Syriac  among  the  Chaldeans  is  somewhat 
different  from  that  used  in  writing  it  among  the  western 
Syrians.  The  Chaldeans  and  Nestorians  use  in  their  church 
books  the  antique  letters  of  the  older  versions  of  the  Syriac 
Scriptures  which  are  called  "astrangelo,"  and  their  pronuncia- 
tion is  somewhat  different.  The  Chaldean  Church  in  ancient 
times  was  most  flourishing,  and  its  history  under  Persian  rule 
was  a  bright  one.  Unfortunately  in  the  sixth  century  it  em- 
braced the  Nestorian  heresy,  for  Nestorius  on  being  removed 
from  the  See  of  Constantinople  went  to  Persia  and  taught  his 
views.  The  Chaldean  Church  took  up  his  heresy  and  became 
Nestorian.  This  Nestorian  Church  not  only  extended  through- 
out Mesopotamia  and  Persia,  but  penetrated  also  into  India 
(Malabar)  and  even  into  China.  The  inroads  of  Moham- 
medanism and  its  isolation  from  the  centre  of  unity  and  from 
intercommunication  with  other  Catholic  bodies  caused  it  to 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  237 

diminish  through  the  centuries.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the 
Church  in  Malabar,  India,  came  into  union  with  the  Holy  See, 
and  this  induced  the  Nestorians  to  do  likewise.  The  conversion 
of  part  of  the  Nestorians  and  the  reunion  of  their  ancient 
Church  with  the  Holy  See  began  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  has  continued  to  the  present  day.  The  Chaldean  Patri- 
arch of  Babylon  (who  really  has  his  see  at  Mossul)  is  the 
chief  prelate  of  the  Chaldean  Catholics,  and  has  under  him  two 
archbishops  (of  Diarbekir  and  Kerkuk)  and  nine  bishops  (of 
Amadia,  Gezireh,  Mardin,  Mossul,  Sakou,  Salmas,  Seert,  Sena 
and  Urmiah).  The  Malabar  Christians  have  no  regular  Chal- 
dean hierarchy,  but  are  governed  by  vicars  Apostolic.  The 
number  of  Chaldean  Catholics  is  estimated  at  about  70,000, 
while  the  corresponding  schismatic  Nestorian  Church  has  about 
140,000. 

There  are  about  100  to  150  Chaldean  Catholics  in  the  United 
States ;  about  fifty  live  in  Yonkers,  New  York,  while  the  re- 
mainder are  scattered  in  New  York  City  and  vicinity.  The 
community  in  Yonkers  is  cared  for  by  Rev.  Abdul  Masih  (a 
married  priest  from  the  Diocese  of  Diarbekir),  who  came  to 
this  country  from  Damascus  some  six  years  ago.  He  says 
Mass  in  a  chapel  attached  to  St.  Mary's  Catholic  Church,  and 
some  Nestorians  also  attend.  At  present  (1911)  there  are  two 
other  Chaldean  priests  in  this  country :  Rev.  Joseph  Ghariba, 
from  the  Diocese  of  Aleppo,  who  is  a  travelling  missionary  for 
his  people,  and  Rev.  Gabriel  Oussani,  who  is  professor  of 
church  history,  patrology  and  Oriental  languages  in  St.  Jo- 
seph's Seminary,  at  Dunwoodie,  near  Yonkers,  and  from  whom 
some  of  these  particulars  have  been  obtained.  There  are  also 
said  to  be  about  150  Nestorians  in  the  United  States;  the  ma- 
jority of  these  live  and  work  in  Yonkers,  New  York.  They 
have  no  priest  of  their  own,  and,  where  they  do  not  attend 
the  Catholic  Rite,  are  drifting  into  modern  Protestantism. 
Several  of  them  have  become  members  of  the  Episcopal 
Church,  and  they  are  looked  after  by  Dr.  Abraham  Yohannan, 
an  Armenian  from  Persia,  now  a  minister  in  the  Episcopal 
Church  and  lecturer  on  modern  Persian  at  Columbia  Univer- 
sity.   They  have  no  church  or  chapel  of  their  own. 

(2)  Syro-Catholic  Rite. — This  rite  is  professed  by  those 
Syriac  Christians  who  were  subjects  of  the  ancient  Patriar- 
chate of  Antioch;  these  are  spread  throughout  the  plains  of 


238  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Syria  and  Western  Mesopotamia,  whereas  the  Maronites  live 
principally  on  Mount  Lebanon  and  the  sea  coast  of  Syria. 
The  Syriac  Mass  and  liturgy  is,  like  the  Maronite  (which  is 
but  a  variation  of  it),  the  Liturgy  of  St.  James,  Apostle  and 
Bishop  of  Jerusalem.  For  this  reason,  but  principally  for  the 
reason  that  Jacob  Baradaeus  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Syriac 
Church  embraced  the  Monophysite  heresy  of  Eutyches,  the 
schismatic  branch  of  this  rite  are  called  Jacobites,  although 
they  call  themselves  Suriani  or  Syrians.  Thus  we  have  in  the 
three  Syrian  rites  the  historic  remembrance  of  the  three  great- 
est heresies  of  the  early  Church  after  it  had  become  well-de- 
veloped. Nestorians  and  Chaldeans  represent  Nestorianism 
and  the  return  to  Catholicism ;  Jacobites  and  Syro-Catholics 
represent  Monophysitism  and  the  return  to  Catholicism;  the 
Maronites  represent  a  vanished  Monothelitism  now  wholly 
Catholic.  The  Syro-Catholics  like  the  Maronites  vary  the 
Ordinary  of  their  Mass  by  a  large  number  of  anaphoras  or 
canons  of  the  Mass,  containing  changeable  forms  of  the  con- 
secration service.  The  Syro-Catholics  confine  themselves  to 
the  anaphoras  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  St.  James,  St.  Peter, 
St.  John  Chrysostom,  St.  Xystus  the  Pope  of  Rome,  St.  Mat- 
thew and  St.  Basil;  but  the  schismatic  Jacobites  not  only  use 
these,  but  have  a  large  number  of  others,  some  of  them  not 
yet  in  print,  amounting  perhaps  to  thirty  or  more.  The  epis- 
tles, gospels  and  many  well-known  prayers  of  the  Mass  are 
said  in  Arabic  instead  of  the  ancient  Syriac.  The  form  of 
their  church  vestments  is  derived  substantially  from  the  Greek 
or  Byzantine  Rite.  Their  church  hierarchy  in  union  with  the 
Holy  See  consists  of  the  Syrian  Patriarch  of  Antioch  with 
three  archbishops  (of  Bagdad,  Damascus  and  Homs)  and  five 
bishops  (of  Aleppo,  Beirut,  Gezireh,  Mardin-Diarbekir  and 
Mossul).  The  number  of  Syro-Catholics  is  about  25,000  fami- 
lies, and  of  the  Jacobites  about  80,000  to  85,000  persons. 

There  are  about  sixty  persons  of  the  Syro-Catholic  Rite  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  of  whom  forty  live  in 
Brooklyn,  New  York.  They  are  mostly  from  the  Diocese  of 
Aleppo,  and  their  emigration  thither  began  only  about  five 
years  ago.  They  have  organized  a  church,  although  there  is 
but  one  priest  of  their  rite  in  the  United  States,  Rev.  Paul 
Kassar,  from  Aleppo,  an  alumnus  of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome. 
He  is  a  mission  priest  engaged  in  looking  after  his  countrymen 


RITES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  239 

and  resides  in  Brooklyn,  but  he  is  only  here  upon  an  extended 
leave  of  absence  from  the  diocese.  There  are  also  some  thirty 
or  forty  Syro-Jacobites  in  the  United  States ;  they  are  mostly 
from  Mardin,  Aleppo  and  Northern  Syria,  and  have  no  priest 
or  chapel  of  their  own. 

(3)  Coptic  Rite. — There  is  only  a  handful  of  Copts  in  this 
country — in  New  York  City  perhaps  a  dozen  individuals. 
Oriental  theatrical  pieces,  in  which  an  Eastern  setting  is  re- 
quired, has  attracted  some  of  them  thither,  principally  from 
Egypt.  They  have  no  priest,  either  Catholic  or  Orthodox,  and 
no  place  of  worship. 


RASKOLNIKS 

RASKOLNIKS  is  a  generic  term  for  dissidents  from 
the  Established  Church  in  Russia.  Under  the  name 
Raskolniki,  the  various  offshoots  and  schismatic  bod- 
ies originating-  from  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church  of  the  Rus- 
sian Empire  have  been  grouped  by  Russian  historians  and 
ecclesiastical  writers.  Strictly  speaking,  the  name  Raskolniki 
refers  merely  to  those  who  have  kept  the  outward  forms  of 
the  Byzantine  Rite ;  the  others  who  have  deserted  its  ritual  as 
well  as  its  teachings  are  grouped  under  the  general  Russian 
name  of  Sektanstvo  (sectarianism).  In  the  present  article 
they  are  both  treated  together,  since  either  form  of  dissent  is 
but  slightly  known  outside  of  Russia.  The  Raskolniks  repre- 
sent in  the  Russian  Church  somewhat  the  antithesis  of  Protes- 
tantism towards  the  Catholic  Church.  Protestants  left  the 
Church  because  they  claimed  a  desire  to  reform  it  by  dropping 
dogmas,  beliefs  and  rites ;  the  Raskolniks  left  the  Russian 
Church  because  they  desired  to  keep  alive  the  minutest  rites 
and  practices  to  which  they  were  accustomed,  and  objected  to 
the  Russian  Church  reforming  them  in  any  respect.  In  doing 
so  they  fell  into  the  greatest  of  inconsistencies,  and  a  section 
of  them,  while  keeping  up  the  minutiae  of  ritual,  rejected  nearly 
every  doctrine  the  Church  taught  throughout  the  world. 

I. — True  Raskolniks 

Even  from  the  time  that  the  Russians  were  converted  to 
Christianity  there  were  various  dissident  sects  among  them, 
reproducing  in  some  respects  the  almost  forgotten  heresies  of 
the  early  ages  of  the  Church.  These  are  mere  names  to-day, 
but  the  main  separation  from  the  Russian  Established  Church 
came  in  1654  when  Nikon,  Patriarch  of  Moscow,  convened  a 
synod  at  Moscow  for  the  reform  of  the  ritual  and  correction 
of  the  church  books.    At  the  time  the  air  in  Southern  Russia 

240 


RASKOLNIKS  241 

was  filled  with  the  idea  of  union  with  Rome,  in  Central  and 
Northern  Russia  there  was  the  fear  of  the  Polish  invasion 
and  the  turning  to  Latin  customs.  When  Nikon  corrected 
the  Church  service  books,  into  which  many  errors  had  crept 
by  careless  copying,  and  conformed  them  with  the  original 
Greek  text,  great  complaint  was  expressed  that  he  was  de- 
parting from  old  Slavonic  hallowed  words,  and  was  making 
cause  with  the  stranger  outside  of  Russia.  When  he  under- 
took to  change  the  style  of  popular  forms  and  ceremonies,  such 
as  the  sign  of  the  cross,  the  spelling  and  pronunciation  of 
"Jesus,"  shaving  the  beard,  or  to  differ  in  the  number  of  Alle- 
luias before  the  Gospel,  he  aroused  popular  resentment,  which 
rose  until  there  came  an  open  break  in  which  every  point  he 
proposed  was  rejected.  Afterwards  when  Peter  the  Great 
came  to  the  throne  (1689-1725)  and  introduced  western  cus- 
toms, abolished  the  Patriarchate  of  Moscow,  substituted  the 
Holy  Synod  and  made  himself  the  head  of  Church  authority, 
changed  the  forms  of  the  ancient  Russo-Slavonic  letters,  and 
set  on  foot  a  host  of  new  things  in  Church  and  State,  the  fol- 
lowers of  the  old  order  of  things  publicly  condemned  him  as 
the  Antichrist  and  renounced  the  State  Church  forever,  while 
clinging  to  the  older  forms  of  their  fathers.  But  both  Nikon 
and  Peter  had  the  whole  Russian  Episcopate  with  them,  as  well 
as  the  great  majority  of  the  Russian  clergy  and  people.  The 
dissenters  who  thus  separated  from  the  established  Greco- 
Russian  Orthodox  Church  became  also  known  as  Stario- 
briadtsi  (old  Ritualists)  and  Staroviertsi  (old  Believers),  in 
allusion  to  their  adherence  to  the  forms  and  teaching  prevail- 
ing before  Nikon's  reforms. 

As  none  of  the  Russian  bishops  seceded  from  the  Established 
Church  the  Raskolniks  therefore  had  but  an  incomplete  form 
of  Church.  Of  course  a  number  of  priests  and  deacons  ad- 
hered to  them,  but  as  they  had  no  bishops  they  could  not  pro- 
vide new  members  of  the  clergy.  Soon  death  began  to  thin 
the  ranks  of  their  clergy  and  it  became  apparent  that  within  a 
brief  period  they  would  be  left  without  any  priesthood  what- 
ever. Then  some  of  their  leaders  began  to  deny  that  a  priest- 
hood was  necessary  at  all.  This  led  to  the  splitting  of  the  Ras- 
kolniks into  two  distinct  branches  :  the  Popovtsi  (Priestly,  i.  e., 
"Pope"-ly),  who  insisted  on  the  hierarchy  and  priesthood, 
and  the  Bezpopovtsi  (Priestless,  i.  e.,  without  "Popes"),  who 


242  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

denied  the  necessity  of  any  clergy  whatever.  The  latter, 
however,  accepted  their  ministrations.  The  fortunes  of  these 
two  denominations  or  sects  were  quite  different.  The  former 
grew  to  great  importance  in  Russia,  and  are  now  said  to 
have  between  thirteen  and  fifteen  millions  of  adherents.  The 
latter  subdivided  again  and  again  into  smaller  sects,  and 
are  said  to  number  between  three  and  four  millions,  all  in- 
cluded.    They  will  be  taken  up  separately. 

Popovtsi  or  Hierarchical  Raskolniks. — At  first  these  re- 
newed their  clergy  by  taking  over  dissatisfied  or  dismissed 
priests  from  the  established  Orthodox  Church,  after  having 
them  take  an  oath  against  all  the  reforms  instituted  by  Nikon 
and  Peter;  but  this  method  was  hardly  satisfactory,  for  in 
most  cases  the  material  thus  obtained  was  of  a  low  moral 
grade.  They  believed  that  the  whole  Russian  episcopate  had 
gone  over  to  Antichrist,  but  still  were  valid  bishops,  and 
hence  endeavored  to  have  priests  ordained  by  them,  but  in 
vain.  They  searched  the  Eastern  world  for  a  bishop  who 
held  their  peculiar  ideas,  and  it  seemed  almost  as  though 
they  must  eventually  change  for  lack  of  clergy,  when  chance 
aided  them.  A  community  of  Popovtsi  monks  had  settled  at 
Bielokrinitsa  (White  Fountain)  in  Bukowina.  Ambrose 
(1791-1863),  a  Greek  monk,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Sara- 
jevo in  Bosnia,  and  was  consecrated  by  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. Subsequently  a  later  patriarch  deposed  him,  and 
when  his  resentful  feelings  against  the  Constantinople  au- 
thorities were  at  their  height,  the  Raskolniks  approached  him 
with  the  request  to  become  their  bishop.  On  16  April,  1846, 
Ambrose  agreed  to  go  over  to  their  faith  and  adopt  all  the 
ancient  practices,  consecrate  other  bishops  for  them,  and 
become  their  metropolitan  or  archbishop.  On  27  October, 
1846,  he  was  solemnly  received  in  the  monastery  of  Bielo- 
krinitsa, took  the  necessary  oaths,  celebrated  pontifical  Mass 
and  assumed  episcopal  jurisdiction.  Bielo-krinitsa  is  only  a 
few  miles  from  the  Russian  border,  and  a  hierarchy  was  soon 
brought  into  being  for  Russia.  After  bishops  were  conse- 
crated for  Austria  and  Turkey,  bishops  were  consecrated 
and  installed  in  Russia.  The  Russian  Government  could  not 
crush  the  head  of  the  Raskol  Church,  for  it  was  in  Austria. 
The  Popovtsi  grew  by  leaps  and  bounds,  commenced  to  pro- 
vide for  a  regular  educated  clergy  and  vied  with  the  Estab- 


RASKOLNIKS  243 

lished  Church.  At  present  they  have,  since  the  decree  of 
toleration  in  1905,  a  well-established  hierarchy  in  Russia, 
with  a  metropolitan  at  Moscow,  and  bishops  at  Saratoff,  Perm, 
Kazan,  Caucasus,  Samara,  Kolomea,  Nijni-Novgorod,  Smo- 
lensk, Vyatka,  and  Kaluga. 

Their  chief  stronghold  is  the  Rogozhsky  quarter  in  Moscow, 
where  they  have  their  great  cemetery,  monastery,  cathedral, 
church,  and  chapels.  In  1863,  at  the  time  of  the  Polish  insur- 
rection the  Raskolnik  archbishop  and  his  lay  advisers  sent 
out  an  encyclical  letter  to  the  "Holy  Catholic  Apostolic  Church 
of  the  Old  Believers,"  supporting  the  tsar  and  declaring  that 
on  all  main  points  they  were  in  agreement  with  the  Established 
Church.  This  again  split  their  Church  into  two  factions  which 
last  to  this  day :  the  Okruzhniki  or  Encyclicalists  and  the 
Razdorniki  or  Controversialists,  who  denied  the  points  of 
agreement  with  the  national  Church.  In  addition  to  this  the 
Established  Church  has  now  set  up  a  section  of  these  Ras- 
kolniks  in  union  with  it,  but  has  permitted  them  to  keep  all 
their  peculiar  practices,  and  these  are  called  the  Y edinovertsi 
or  "Uniats."  A  great  many  of  the  controversial  section  of 
the  Raskolniks  are  coming  into  the  Catholic  Church,  and  al- 
ready some  eight  or  ten  priests  have  been  received. 

Bezpopovtsi,  or  the  Priestless,  seemed  to  represent  the  de- 
spairing side  of  the  schism.  They  have  their  great  stronghold 
in  the  Preobrazhenky  quarter  in  Moscow,  and  are  strong  also 
in  the  Government  of  Archangel.  They  took  the  view  that 
Satan  had  so  far  conquered  and  throttled  the  Church  that 
the  clergy  had  gone  wrong  and  had  become  his  servants,  that 
the  sacraments,  except  baptism,  were  withdrawn  from  the 
laity,  and  that  they  were  left  leaderless.  They  claim  the 
right  of  free  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  modelling  their 
lives  accordingly.  They  recognize  no  ministers  save  their 
"readers,"  who  are  elected.  Lest  this  be  said  to  duplicate 
Protestantism,  one  must  remember  that  they  have  kept  up 
all  the  Orthodox  forms  of  service  as  far  as  possible,  cross- 
ings, bowings,  icons,  candles,  fastings,  and  the  like,  and  have 
regularly  maintained  monasteries  with  their  monks  and  nuns. 
But  they  had  no  element  of  stability ;  and  their  sects  have  be- 
come innumerable,  ever  shifting  and  varying,  with  incessant 
divisions  and  subdivisions.  The  chief  of  the  subdivisions  are : 
(i)  Pomortsi,  or  dwellers  near  the  sea,  a  rural  division  which 


244  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

is  very  devout;  (2)  Feodocei  (Theodosians),  who  founded 
hospitals  and  laid  emphasis  on  good  works;  (3)  Besbrachniki 
(free  lovers),  who  repudiated  marriage,  somewhat  like  the 
Oneida  community  in  New  York;  (4)  Stranniki  (wander- 
ers), a  peripatetic  sect,  who  went  over  the  country,  declaring 
their  doctrines;  (5)  Molchalniki  (mutes),  who  seldom  spoke, 
believing  evil  came  through  the  tongue  and  idle  conversation ; 
and  (6)  Niemoliaki  (non-praying),  who  taught  that  as  God 
knows  all  things  it  is  useless  to  pray  to  Him,  as  He  knows 
what  one  needs.  These  various  divisions  of  the  Priestless 
are  again  divided  into  smaller  ones,  like  many  of  the  strange 
sects  in  England  and  America,  so  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  follow  them.  Often  they  indulge  in  the  wildest  immorality, 
justifying  it  under  the  cover  of  some  distorted  text  of  Scrip- 
ture or  some  phrase  of  the  ancient  Church  service. 


II. — Sectarians 

The  various  bodies  which  make  up  the  Sektanstvo  have 
seceded  from  the  national  Russian  Church  quite  independently 
of  the  schism  at  the  time  of  Nikon  and  the  reform  in  the 
Church  books.  They  correspond  more  closely  with  the  vari- 
ous sects  arising  from  Protestantism,  and  are  founded  upon 
some  distorted  idea  of  the  Church,  or  a  rule  of  life  or  doc- 
trines of  the  Faith.  Some  of  them  are  older  than  the  schism, 
but  most  of  them  are  later  in  point  of  time.  The  principal 
ones  comprise  between  one  and  two  millions  and  may  be  sub- 
divided or  classified  as  follows:  (i)  Khlysti  (Flagellants), 
who  believe  in  severe  penances,  reject  the  Church,  its  sacra- 
ments and  usages.  They  are  also  called  the  Ludi  Boshi,  or 
"God's  People,"  and  also  the  "Farmazoni"  (Freemasons),  on 
account  of  the  secret  initiations  they  have.  They  hold  secret 
meetings  in  which  they  sing  wild,  stirring  hymns,  dress  in 
white,  and  jump,  dance,  or  whirl,  much  like  the  negro  revivals 
in  the  Southern  States. 

(2)  Skoptsi  (Eunuchs),  who  not  only  teach  absolute  celi- 
bacy, but  mutilate  themselves  so  as  to  be  sexless.  They  boast 
that  they  are  pure  like  the  saints  and  walk  untainted  through 
this  world  of  sin,  and  take  the  literal  view  of  Matt.,  xix,  12. 
Women  are  also  mutilated,  particularly  after  they  have  borne 


RASKOLNIKS  245 

children  to  recruit  the  sect,  but  these  children  are  not  born 
in  wedlock.  The  Skoptsi  are  said  to  be  usurers  and  money 
changers. 

(3)  Molokani  (Milk-drinkers),  said  to  be  so  named  because 
they  make  it  a  point  to  drink  milk  and  use  other  prohibited 
foods  during  Lent  and  fast  days,  to  show  their  objection  to 
the  Orthodox  Church.  They  abhor  all  external  ceremonies  of 
religion,  but  lay  stress  upon  the  Bible.  They  say  there  is 
no  teacher  of  the  Faith  but  Christ  himself,  and  that  we  are 
all  priests ;  and  they  carry  their  logic  so  far  as  to  have  neither 
church  nor  chapel,  simply  meeting  in  one  another's  houses. 

(4)  Dukhobors  (Spirit  wrestlers)  are  those  who  deny  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  who  place  but  a  minor  importance  upon  the 
Scriptures.  They  are  better  known  to  America,  for  some  thou- 
sands of  them  emigrated  to  Canada,  where  they  are  now 
good  colonists.  They  give  a  wide  place  to  tradition,  and  desig- 
nate man  as  "the  living  book,"  in  opposition  to  dead  books 
of  paper  and  ink.  In  some  respects  they  are  pantheists,  say- 
ing that  God  lies  within  us,  that  we  must  struggle  with  the 
spirit  of  God  to  attain  the  fulness  of  life.  They  do  not  give 
an  historical  reality  to  the  Gospel  narratives,  but  take  them 
figuratively.  Their  idea  of  the  Church  is  in  conformity  with 
their  belief;  they  consider  it  an  assembly  of  the  righteous  on 
earth,  whether  Christians,  Jews,  or  Moslems.  Yet  they  have 
all  the  peculiarities  and   fanaticism  of  the  Slav. 

(5)  Stundists,  or  a  kind  of  Russian  Baptists.  These  seem 
to  be  an  offshoot  from  the  Lutherans  or  Mennonites  who  set- 
tled in  Russia.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  German  Stunde, 
or  hour,  because  they  assembled  at  stated  hours  to  read  the 
Bible  or  worship.  They  rejected  the  sacraments,  even  baptism 
at  first,  but  yet  retain  it.  They  gave  up  all  Church  holidays, 
and  agreed  with  the  Melokani  in  repudiating  the  idea  of  a 
clergy.  They  are  nearly  all  Little  Russians,  in  the  South  of 
Russia. 

(6)  Subhotniki  (Sabbatarians),  who  have  substituted  Satur- 
day, the  Jewish  Sabbath,  for  Sunday.  They  have  also  taken 
up  a  great  many  Jewish  practices  from  the  Old  Testament 
along  with  such  elemental  Christian  forms  which  they  retain. 
They  are  practically  Unitarians,  and  expect  the  Messias ;  and 
they  are  also  said  to  be  like  the  Mormons,  living  in  polygamy 
in  many  instances,  although  most  of  them  are  content  with 


246  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

one  wife.  Besides  these  principal  sects  there  are  numerous 
smaller  ones.  One  can  run  almost  the  same  round  of  strange 
and  erratic  religious  beliefs  in  Russia  as  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  the  Pliassuny  (Dancers),  Samobogi  (Self-gods), 
Chislenniki  (Computers),  who  have  changed  Sunday  so  as 
to  fall  on  Wednesday,  and  Easter  to  the  middle  of  the  week, 
Pashkovites,  Radstockites  (so  named  after  their  founders), 
and  numerous  others,  which  exploit  some  peculiar  tenet  of 
their  various  founders  and  believers.  In  addition  to  these  are 
the  various  missionary  enterprises  and  local  churches  of  West- 
em  Protestantism,  of  which  the  Lutherans  and  Baptists  are 
the  leading  ones. 


CIVIC  SUBJECTS 


CIVIC  INTEGRITY 

Address  Before  the  Xavier  Alumni  Sodality 

THE  forces  of  this  age  seem  to  be  in  a  large  measure 
centrifugal.  The  reverence  for  former  standards, 
former  virtues,  the  established  standards  of  mankind 
is  being  dissipated.  This  is  not  merely  true  of  temporary 
things,  the  mere  expedients  of  daily  government  and  disci- 
pline, but  of  the  very  principles  which  lie  back  of  social  ties 
and  order. 

In  the  history  of  religious  movements  the  term  "private 
judgment"  was  once  understood  to  mean  the  right  to  interpret 
the  meaning  of  Holy  Scripture  after  the  manner  that  seemed 
most  expedient  to  the  reader,  and  if  the  passage  or  the  doc- 
trine embraced  therein  did  not  commend  itself  then  to  reject 
it  altogether.  But  we  have  gone  far  beyond  that  now.  It 
is  the  fashion  of  many  political,  social  and  personal  cults  to- 
day, to  say  nothing  of  private  individuals,  to  use  their  "private 
judgment"  in  rejecting,  modifying  or  amending  the  basic  prin- 
ciples of  morality,  discipline  and  government.  In  other  words, 
many  a  man  is  ready  to  repeal  not  only  the  Ten  Command- 
ments, but  hundreds  of  human  laws  so  far  as  they  apply  to 
his  own  conduct.  It  is  becoming  the  fashion  to  deny  and 
abrogate  any  inconvenient  prohibition  or  commandment  what- 
soever. What  is  the  fashion  to-day  may  be  the  custom  to- 
morrow, and  the  standard  set  for  a  decade  hence.  Let  us 
examine  how  such  a  phase  of  life  should  affect  us  as  Sodalists. 
You  who  meet  with  us  to-night  to  join  in  our  celebration 
of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  establishment  of  the  Xavier 
Alumni  Sodality,  may  wonder  why  we  link  such  a  theme  with 
the  praises  of  Our  Blessed  Lady.  It  is  easily  explainable. 
On  this  evening  of  the  Feast  of  her  Immaculate  Conception 
we  again  glorify  the  Blessed  Mother  of  God,  whom  the  Om- 
nipotent in  His  grace  made  a  second  Eve,  fair  and  stainless 

249 


250  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

from  the  moment  of  her  existence.  To-night  in  our  celebra- 
tion we  salute  her  in  the  language  used  by  the  Greek  Church 
in  that  wonderful  Acathistos  hymn:  "Reverently  we  stand 
in  the  house  of  our  God  and  cry  aloud :  Hail,  Queen  of 
the  world !  Hail,  Mary,  Lady  of  us  all !  Hail,  thou,  alone 
immaculate  and  fair  amongst  women !"  Yet  in  the  midst  of 
our  celebration  and  rejoicing  there  is  no  greater  or  more 
appropriate  theme  than  the  consideration  of  man's  duties  to 
God,  to  himself  and  to  his  neighbor,  and  its  logical  ex- 
tension to  his  duty  towards  the  State,  and  the  laws  which 
govern  him,  all  of  which  is  exemplified  in  the  most  striking 
manner  in  the  life  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 

We  are  accustomed  to  look  upon  the  shrinking  maiden 
of  the  hills  of  Galilee  as  an  example  of  heroic  obedience, 
from  a  worldly  standpoint,  but  we  do  not  ordinarily  view  her 
as  a  public  citizen  doing  her  duty  under  the  law.  When  we 
think  or  speak  of  civil  duties  and  obedience  to  the  law,  her 
figure  does  not  usually  come  up  as  an  exemplar  of  citizen- 
ship. It  is  true  that  she  obeyed  humbly  and  cheerfully  the 
salutation  of  the  Most  High  that  she  should  take  upon  her- 
self a  motherhood  which  seemed  in  her  eyes  to  conflict  with 
her  virginity,  and  gave  obedience  with  a  serene  confidence 
which  has  made  her  "blessed  amongst  women."  Yet  I  think 
she  can  stand  also  as  an  exponent  of  civic  duty  both  under 
the  Roman  and  the  Jewish  law  in  such  a  manner  that  may 
well  make  her  a  pattern  and  example  for  us  of  later  days. 

You  remember  that  Judea  had  its  own  code  of  laws,  which 
every  Jewish  citizen  obeyed.  When  the  Romans  made  Pales- 
tine a  conquered  Roman  province,  they  imposed  their  laws 
and  decrees  upon  the  people  also.  Here,  then,  were  both  the 
laws  of  a  God-fearing  people  and  the  laws  of  a  pagan  em- 
pire, each  to  be  obeyed  in  their  respective  spheres.  But  one 
to  whom  the  Angel  had  said :  "Thou  shalt  bring  forth  a  son ; 
he  shall  be  great  and  shall  be  the  Son  of  the  Most  High," 
might  well  disregard  the  laws  of  pagan  Rome  and  the  re- 
quirements of  the  Mosaic  code.  If  private  judgment  of  our 
modern  type  had  dominated  her,  she  might  well  have  said : 
I  am  the  mother  of  the  maker  and  creator  of  all  laws,  and  I 
am  not  to  be  bound  by  any  laws  imposed  by  earthly  authority. 
I  am  the  mother  and  director  of  Him  who  made  all  things, 
even  the  law-givers,  and  I  will  not  bow  to  the  decrees  of  lesser 


CIVIC  INTEGRITY  251 

men.  My  Son  has  been  announced  to  the  world  by  the  angels 
and  has  been  adored  by  the  kings  of  the  earth  as  He  lay  in 
my  arms.  Let  the  officials  of  this  world  accommodate  their 
laws  and  customs  to  me.  Instead  of  this,  she  exhibited  every 
element  of  civic  duty  and  citizenship,  displaying  obedience 
to  constituted  authority  as  she  herself  found  it,  although  in 
the  end  her  very  obedience  and  compliance  was  the  starting 
point  to  initiate  the  stupendous  changes  which  afterwards  took 
place  in  Judea  and  in  Rome. 

No  matter  with  what  words  we  might  clothe  the  event,  we 
cannot  tell  the  story  of  Mary's  civic  obedience  and  integrity 
in  the  observance  of  law  in  more  fitting  words  than  those 
of  the  Gospel.    Saint  Luke  describes  these  episodes  as  follows : 

"And  it  came  to  pass,  that  in  those  days  there  went  out  a 
decree  from  Csesar  Augustus,  that  the  whole  world  should  be 
enrolled.  This  enrolling  was  first  made  by  Cyrinus,  the  gov- 
ernor of  Syria.  And  all  went  to  be  enrolled,  every  one  into 
Ills  own  city. 

"And  Joseph  also  went  up  from  Galilee,  out  of  the  city  of 
Nazareth  into  Judea,  to  the  city  of  David,  which  is  called 
Bethlehem ;  because  he  was  of  the  house  and  family  of  Da- 
vid, to   be   enrolled   with   Mary,   his   espoused   wife." 

It  was  after  this  act  of  obedience  to  Roman  Law  that 
Our  Blessed  Lord  was  born.  The  evangelist  goes  on  to  tell 
of  the  Mosaic  law : 

"And  after  the  days  of  her  purification,  according  to  the 
law  of  Moses,  were  accomplished  they  carried  him  to  Jerusa- 
lem to  present  him  to  the  Lord;  And  to  offer  a  sacrifice  ac- 
cording as  it  is  written  in  the  law  of  the  Lord,  a  pair  of  turtle 
doves  or  two  young  pigeons. 

"And  after  they  had  performed  all  things  according  to 
the  law  of  the  Lord,  they  returned  into  Galilee,  to  their  city, 
Nazareth."  ^ 

Here  was  obedience  and  the  fulfilment  of  the  obligations 
of  a  citizen  to  the  foreign  and  domestic  laws  in  force  in 
Judea.  Although  Mary  knew  that  in  her  own  person  she 
was  an  exception  to  the  ordinary  laws  of  nature  and  exempt 
from  the  penalties  of  fallen  humanity,  nevertheless  she  will- 
ingly submitted  to  the  regulations  of  pagan  rule  and  of  eccle- 
siastical discipline.     These  acts  make  Mary,  as  described  in 

^  St.    Luke,    ii. 


252  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

the  pages  of  the  gospel,  a  pattern  of  civic  integrity,  which 
every  Socialist  and  every  Catholic, — nay,  every  man  and 
woman  who  admires  noble  conduct — can  take  as  their  ideal  in 
their  relations  to  the  State  and  to  their  fellow-citizens.  Her 
example  should  be  our  standard  and  her  civic  virtue  we  can 
imitate  and  develop  amid  the  varying  needs  of  our  daily  civic 
life. 

It  is  not,  however,  mere  obedience  to  civic  law  which  the 
Sodalist  in  a  perfunctory  fashion  should  cultivate.  If  he 
wishes  to  imitate  in  spirit  and  in  truth  the  high  virtue  of  Our 
Lady,  he  should  go  further  and  have  regard  for  the  end  for 
which  such  observance  was  intended.  Merely  living  within  the 
narrow  limits  of  statute  and  decision,  so  as  to  comply  with 
the  bare  precepts  of  the  law,  is  not  enough  for  the  true  fulfil- 
ment of  citizenship  of  to-day.  It  is  much  like  paying  the  mere 
minimum  wage  to  the  laborer,  irrespective  of  the  condition 
and  the  needs  of  the  worker.  The  law  should  be  observed  so 
as  to  accomplish  its  full  purport,  and  if  the  law  in  practice 
falls  short  of  its  proper  aim,  then  effort  should  be  made  to 
improve  or  amend  it  so  as  to  better  achieve  its  legitimate 
results.  A  true-hearted  citizen  should  make  every  effort 
to  serve  the  best  interests  of  the  State  and  to  promote  to 
the  largest  extent  the  comfort  and  welfare  of  his  fellow-man. 
Only  by  doing  willing,  cheerful  and  generous  service  will 
the  Sodalist  approach  the  ideal  set  by  Our  Lady. 

Nor  must  he  be  content  with  merely  performing  such  ob- 
servance by  himself.  He  should  be  an  example  and  encourage- 
ment to  others,  inducing  them  by  example  and  by  precept  to 
observe  these  things  in  as  large  a  measure  as  possible.  You 
all  know  the  cynical  definition  of  altruism,  that  altruism  con- 
sisted in  A  and  B  getting  together  and  deciding  just  what  C 
should  do  for  D.  That  can  never  be  the  Sodalist's  method ;  he 
must  search  his  own  heart  and  mind  and  set  about  doing 
the  work  himself.  If  he  can  induce  B  to  cooperate  in  the  work, 
so  much  the  better.  He  can  afford  to  wait  until  both  himself 
and  B  have  done  their  full  duty,  before  he  may  require  what  C 
should  do  for  D.  Yet  this  cynical  definition  is  not  so  far  re- 
moved from  the  actual  state  of  affairs  as  we  find  them  to-day. 
There  are  many  people  who  seriously  believe  in  making  the 
world  over  by  legislation.  The  cry  on  all  sides  is :  Pass  a  law 
to  prevent  this  or  that,  whether  it  be  a  trivial  or  a  serious 


CIVIC  INTEGRITY  253 

thing.  There  are  societies  for  the  prevention  of  almost  every- 
thing under  the  sun.  People  are  engaged  busily  in  the 
very  purpose  of  seeing  what  C  shall  do  to  D.  Few  seem  to 
think  of  seriously  enforcing  the  laws  which  we  now  have, 
and,  what  is  far  worse,  fewer  seem  to  think  of  earnestly, 
seriously  and  reverently  obeying  the  laws  themselves  and  of 
inducing  their  neighbor  to  do  likewise,  by  that  most  powerful 
of  all  persuasives,  a  good  example.  Loopholes  and  techni- 
calities in  the  laws  are  eagerly  searched  for,  and  if  these 
fail  there  is  a  general  protest,  both  in  word  and  deed,  that 
the  law  is  no  good  and  ought  not  be  enforced  anyhow. 

Can  any  one  doubt  that  two-thirds  of  our  laws  drawn  so 
stringently  against  commercial  oppression,  financial  decep- 
tion and  greed,  injustice  between  man  and  man  in  a  thou- 
sand ways,  would  be  totally  unnecessary  if  every  citizen  of 
any  importance  at  all  would  see  that  our  plain  old-fashion 
common  law — declarative  of  that  still  older-fashioned  law,  the 
Ten  Commandments — was  strictly  obeyed,  and  first  set  the 
example  of  obeying  it  himself?  One  person  in  the  resolute 
imitation  of  the  good  example  of  Our  Lady  would  go  far 
towards   solving  the   problem. 

One  cannot  turn  the  world  into  a  vast  penitentiary  where 
the  citizens  are  working  under  surveillance  and  menaced 
at  all  times  by  severe  penalties  for  infractions  of  discipline. 
Love  and  hope,  willingness  and  cheerfulness,  make  for  far 
better  voluntary  work  and  obedience,  and  produce  nobler  and 
more  lasting  results.  Making  the  world  over  by  legislation 
will  never  succeed.  The  individual  must  be  furnished  with 
and  in  turn  must  furnish  the  incentive  to  do  right.  The 
field  for  the  Sodalist  lies  here. 

Then  again  there  is  the  vast  unoccupied  field  of  civic  bet- 
terment. The  relations  of  employer  and  employee,  so  dif- 
ferent now  from  former  times  by  the  introduction  of  gigan- 
tic capital  and  vast  machinery,  the  management  of  large 
municipal  institutions  from  the  City  Hall  down  to  the  paving 
of  a  street,  the  caring  for  the  deficient  in  intellect  or  body, 
the  poor  and  the  unfortunate,  compensation  for  industrial 
accidents  resulting  from  the  use  of  colossal  modern  ma- 
chinery; the  education  of  the  young,  especially  in  its  religious 
aspect,  their  moral,  physical  and  mental  well-being,  and  a 
thousand  similar  problems  demanded   for  their  proper  solu- 


254  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

tion ;  the  active  and  earnest  cooperation  of  all  citizens,  espe- 
cially of  Catholics,  who  should  be  foremost  in  such  efforts  for 
the  welfare  of  the  community. 

We  Sodalists  put  much  stress  upon  the  efficacy  of  prayer 
and  of  the  Sacraments.  They  are  indeed  the  prime  aids,  the 
direct  approach  to  God.  But  in  the  civic  life  and  in  the  ex- 
pression of  our  integrity  and  our  duty  towards  our  fellow- 
man  we  can  have  no  higher  guide  and  ideal  than  that  given 
by  Our  Lord  himself :  "Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  God,  with 
thy  whole  heart  and  thy  whole  mind,  and  thy  neighbor  as 
thyself."  With  this  ideal  in  view,  no  matter  how  often  we 
may  stumble  daily,  we  shall  do  our  real  duty  in  civic  life. 

We  can  then  feel  that  the  laws  which  govern  us,  although 
they  may  be  often  defective  and  insufficient,  are,  after  all,  ex- 
pression of  the  eternal  verities  which  govern  human  life.  Our 
civic  duty  will  be  predicated  upon  a  whole-hearted  feeling  of 
acquiescence  in  the  spirit  of  law  and  order,  and  of  using 
our  talents  for  the  betterment  of  the  world  around  us.  Prog- 
ress will  not  be  accomplished  by  rebellion  or  revolution,  but 
by  a  gradual  and  orderly  development  of  better  things.  In  so 
proving  our  civic  integrity  and  love  for  good  and  enduring 
citizenship,  we  shall  become  like  unto  the  careful  householder 
who  cherishes  the  old  household  furnishings  until  they  are 
replaced  by  new,  and  refuses  to  smash  and  destroy  them 
simply  because  they  are  deemed  to  be  antique.  Our  aim 
at  all  times  must  be  constructive,  not  destructive,  and  to  be 
striven  for  in  obedience,  cheerfulness  and  willing  service. 


A  VISION  OF  AMERICAN  CITIZENSHIP 

THE  determined  stand  of  a  handful  of  patriot  farmers 
at  Lexington  on  that  memorable  dawn  of  April  19, 
1775?  was  the  starting  point  of  the  history  of  a  free 
nation.  It  was  the  dawn  preceding  the  rising  sun  of  our 
liberty  which  shines  now  so  splendidly  in  the  zenith,  and 
whose  rays  have  illumined  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth. 
The  Knights  of  Columbus  have  rightly  taken  the  perpetua- 
tion of  the  name  of  the  discoverer  of  the  New  World,  and 
have  rightly  chosen  to  commemorate  not  only  the  discoverer 
of  America,  but  the  great  patriots  who  unfolded  to  their  fel- 
low-countrymen the  liberty  of  a  people.  The  Order  stands  not 
only  for  these  things,  but  attests  by  its  numbers  what  Catho- 
lics have  come  to  mean  in  the  civic  and  political  life  of  the 
United  States.  It  was  long  before  prejudice  and  unreasoning 
opposition  to  us  died  out,  and  in  some  communities  it  is  still 
felt,  although  in  a  diminishing  degree.  But,  gradually,  as 
the  heavy  mists  fade  out  before  the  glowing  rays  of  the 
rising  sun,  each  age-long  relic  of  prejudice  and  hatred  dis- 
solves into  nothingness,  and  the  American  citizen  who  pro- 
fesses the  Catholic  faith  at  last  becomes  the  peer  of  his  fellow- 
man. 

This  was  not  all  accomplished  suddenly  or  without  toil  and 
struggle.  It  was  not  due  merely  to  native  recognition  of  the 
fellow-man  of  a  different  creed ;  it  was  due  to  the  persistent 
influx  of  a  Catholic  people,  who,  'mid  stress  and  struggle, — 
like  Columbus  in  the  stormy  seas  on  his  westward  way  to  ' 
discover  America — kept  true  to  the  direction  pointed  by  the 
compass,  their  Faith,  and  who  by  their  earnestness  and  their 
single-heartedness  won  for  themselves  a  place  among  their 
fellow-citizens.  It  marks  a  triumph  in  American  citizenship ; 
not  only  as  to  the  amelioration  of  public  manners  upon  th' 
part  of  those  who  differ  from  us,  but  a  winning  of  the  esteem 
and  appreciation  of  our  fellow-citizens  upon  our  part — a  dem- 

255 


256  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

onstration  that  we  have  become  an  integral  and  indispensable 
part  of  this  country.  It  is  a  witness  to  the  liberality  and  fair- 
mindedness  of  our  fellows,  but  it  is  also  a  tribute  to  the 
earnestness  and  devotion  of  all  who  have  contributed  to  the 
result. 

We  Catholics  intend  to  be  whole-souled  and  energetic  citi- 
zens of  every  great  commonwealth  of  this  still  greater  land ; 
we  intend  to  march  in  the  van  of  all  that  is  to  the  interest  of 
this  republic  and  which  may  contribute  to  its  solidity  and  its 
well-being ;  we  declare  boldly  our  Faith  in  this  land  of  the  free 
and  home  of  the  brave,  its  institutions  and  its  progress,  its 
virtue  and  morality,  and  its  everlasting  witness  of  the  watch- 
fulness of  God  Almighty  over  the  destinies  of  man. 

Our  sun  of  earthly  glory  is  rising  to  its  zenith,  and  the  bril- 
liancy of  our  temporal  prosperity  has  suffused  the  world.  Our 
fathers  in  the  science  of  government  and  the  constitution  laid 
broader  and  deeper  foundations  than  they  dreamed.  The 
fabric  of  our  empire  has  risen  to  gigantic  proportions;  it  has 
reached  a  point  where  mere  axioms  of  law  and  written  statutes 
can  hardly  suffice  to  hold  it  cemented  together.  When  this 
point  is  reached,  reaction  may  set  in.  On  the  one  hand,  a 
strongly  centralized — nay,  a  well-nigh  despotic  government — 
may  seem  to  be  the  only  recourse  to  hold  the  country  to- 
gether, while  on  the  other,  ruin  may  ensue  by  lawless  license 
instead  of  liberty.  This  is  when  prosperity  may  menace  us 
more  than  adversity ;  and  the  menace  be  so  disguised  that  we 
fail  to  recognize  it. 

We  have  already  arrived  at  the  point  where  the  parting  of 
the  ways  may  be  dimly  discerned.  On  the  one  hand,  the 
growth  of  privilege  and  power  resulting  from  the  combina- 
tions and  monopolies  of  commerce  and  industrialism  seem  to 
threaten  the  well-being  of  the  nation  and  the  prosperity  of 
its  citizens.  The  only  remedy  so  far  devised  is  the  stern  curb- 
ing of  such  organizations  by  a  series  of  enactments  which 
lodge  all  power  in  the  most  inquisitorial  fashion  with  the  cen- 
tral government,  whether  it  be  at  Washington  or  at  the  capi- 
tal of  the  state.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  a  reduplication  of 
such  powers  of  government  may  in  the  end  reduce  the  citizen 
to  a  state  of  vassalage  and  nullify  the  guarantees  of  life, 
liberty  and  happiness  embodied  in  our  constitutions. 

The  other  alternative  is  scarcely  better.    There  is  a  growth 


A  VISION  OF  AMERICAN  CITIZENSHIP      257 

of  lawless  feeling,  a  deliberate  contempt  for  law  enactment 
and  law  enforcement,  which  is  at  present  somewhat  in  the 
formless  shape  of  a  philosophic  theory,  but  which  pervades 
a  large  portion  of  our  people.  It  is  not  confined  to  those  who 
call  themselves  Socialists,  Liberals  or  even  Anarchists;  it 
rather  has  its  roots  and  being  in  those  who  have,  as  the  phrase 
is,  "a  stake  in  the  country."  It  is  a  deliberate  setting  of  the 
individual  opinion  above  the  enacted  law,  and  it  is  carrying  out 
a  practical  defiance  to  that  law.  In  its  lowest  stage,  it  mani- 
fests itself  in  petty  evasions  of  the  law,  whether  by  subter- 
fuge, trickery  or  graft;  in  its  highest,  it  calmly  sneers  at  the 
statutes,  and  even  buys  representatives  among  officials,  legis- 
latures and  perhaps  in  the  courts.  It  is  the  very  antithesis 
of  the  orderly  conduct  of  human  affairs,  and  it  is  the  breeder 
of  more  social  disorder  than  even  the  wildest  agitator.  It 
is  the  survey  of  these  things  that  makes  the  poor  man  rebel, 
the  one  of  small  means  cherish  hatred  and  envy  towards  his 
fellow-man,  and  produces  the  discontent  which  finally  leads  to 
open  outbreak. 

The  cause  of  these  two  phenomena  may  be  ascribed  largely 
to  the  mere  piling  up  of  material  things  to  the  neglect  of  the 
moral  and  intellectual  side  of  man.  Nor  by  intellectual  side 
must  we  mean  merely  the  ability  to  use  and  profit  by  book 
knowledge  and  mentality.  That  is  merely  surface  intellect — 
and  every  modern  business  venture  requires  a  substantial  por- 
tion of  that  in  order  to  become  even  approximately  successful. 
The  neglect  of  the  intellectual  side  refers  rather  to  an  atrophy, 
a  deadening  and  a  blinding  of  the  light-appreciating  powers 
in  the  mind  of  every  man.  To  illustrate  it,  I  can  do  no  better 
than  to  cite  the  instance  mentioned  in  the  book  "Is  Mankind 
Advancing?"  where  the  Western  farmer,  surveying  his  past 
at  the  close  of  a  successful  life,  discovered  to  his  consterna- 
tion that  he  had  spent  his  entire  existence  in  growing  corn  to 
feed  hogs  in  order  to  make  money  so  as  to  buy  more  land  on 
which  to  grow  corn  to  feed  more  hogs,  in  order  to  buy  more 
land  on  which  to  grow  more  corn  to  raise  more  hogs,  and  so 
on.  No  doubt  he  employed  a  corner  of  his  intellect  for  the 
accomplishment  of  the  result,  but  the  entire  performance, 
like  many  more  instances  in  our  modern  world,  can  hardly  be 
called  intellectual. 

And  when  I  speak  of  the  neglect  of  the  moral  side  of  man's 


258  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

nature,  I  need  hardly  give  examples.  The  newspapers  are 
full  of  the  details  of  high  financiering,  many  of  the  particu- 
lars of  which  are  hardly  bounded  by  the  limits  of  the  penal 
statutes.  These  fine  examples  are  merely  the  ones  which 
are  found  out  and  exposed  to  the  pubUc  gaze;  but  every  man 
knows  whispers  of  many  others  which  do  not  come  to  the 
surface.  It  is  even  exploited  as  a  motive  power  for  our 
daily  press;  since  descriptions  of  the  violations  of  the  Ten 
Commandments  make  "snappy"  articles. 

Now,  it  is  these  very  things  which  may  wreck  our  nation 
and  ruin  our  body  politic.  It  is  a  question  whether  we  can 
keep  up  our  standard  of  citizenship  and  preserve  the  institu- 
tions which  we  have  inherited.  I  am  one  of  those  who  firmly 
believe  that  we  can,  and  I  believe  that  every  effort  should 
be  made  to  do  so.  And  there  is  no  organization  of  men  in  the 
world,  upon  whom  such  a  standard  of  citizenship  should  rest 
more  than  upon  Catholics  in  general  and  upon  the  Knights  of 
Columbus  in  particular.  When  we  studied  our  elementary 
catechism,  we  learned,  as  primary  truths,  "Thou  shalt  not  steal" 
and  "Thou  shalt  not  covet,"  and  that  among  the  sins  which  cry 
to  Heaven  for  vengeance  are  the  oppression  of  the  poor  and 
defrauding  laborers  of  their  wage.  On  these  may  be  built 
the  entire  economic  and  political  history  of  the  modern  state. 
All  the  material  ills  that  cry  for  reform  are  but  a  variation  o^ 
these  two  themes. 

For  the  past  five  years  our  newspapers,  our  magazines  and 
numerous  books  have  teemed  with  the  story  of  unrighteous 
gain,  oppression  of  the  weak,  and  the  unholy  greed  manifested 
by  corporate  expansion.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  feudal  rank 
grew  great  by  the  assumption  of  privilege ;  to-day  the  corpo- 
ration and  its  coterie  of  majority  holders  do  the  same  thing. 
The  gradual  monopoly  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  of  the  means 
of  transportation,  and  of  even  the  means  of  diffusion  of  knowl- 
edge, threatens  our  national  life  and  liberties,  far  more  than 
the  encroachments  of  kings  and  nobles  in  the  worst  decline 
of  feudal  times.  Then,  at  least,  they  had  as  a  working  the- 
ory, the  idea  that  they  were  the  guardians  of  the  people, 
exalted  perhaps  by  caste,  but  nevertheless  in  theory  bound  to 
look  after  the  welfare  of  their  subjects  or  vassals. 

To-day,  however,  we  are  more  individualistic ;  the  theory  to- 
day is  a  shorter  one  :    "What  is  there  in  it  for  me  ?    Where  do 


A  VISION  OF  AMERICAN  CITIZENSHIP      259 

I  come  in?"  As  our  society  to-day  is  larger  and  more  com- 
plex, our  fall— if  fall  there  be — must  be  greater  and  with 
more  destruction  than  even  that  of  the  older  society.  The 
heir  to  a  dukedom  had  before  him  in  those  days  "noblesse 
oblige,"  and  he  was  bound  to  live  up  to  the  traditions  of  his 
order — he  was  like  a  general  in  command  of  his  army;  he 
might  be  superior  in  rank,  but  he  must  endure  the  same 
hardships  and  live  the  same  life  as  his  soldiers  did.  To-day 
the  heir  to  a  railroad,  or  a  steel  trust,  may  live  in  New  York, 
London  or  Paris,  whilst  his  operatives  may  live  almost  in 
hell,  for  aught  that  he  may  personally  care. 

It  is  just  here  that  the  duties  of  Catholics  and  of  such  in- 
stitutions as  the  Knights  of  Columbus  have  the  widest  field  for 
their  exercise.  If  the  state  is  to  be  carried  along  on  the  high 
plane  of  justice,  it  can  only  be  by  high  moral  aim  and  per- 
sonal endeavor.  Our  Faith  will  supply  the  moral  aim  and 
we  can  make  the  personal  endeavor  too.  Every  once  in  a 
while  we  show  what  we  can  do  in  one  way  by  the  election 
returns  in  particular  localities. 

But  we  must  needs  go  further;  Catholics,  now  that  they 
have  obtained  perhaps  a  little  more  than  an  amiable  recog- 
nition, must  not  confine  themselves  merely  to  endeavors  within 
the  platforms  of  political  parties.  That  would  be  indeed  keep- 
ing our  "light  under  a  bushel."  We  have  among  us  men  of 
almost  every  form  of  activity,  but  familiarly  a  Catholic  is 
heard  of  most  frequently  as  a  religionist  and  a  voter.  The 
popular  idea — a  portion  of  the  old  prejudice  that  has  not  yet 
been  put  away  with  the  lumber  in  the  attic — is  that  citizenship 
among  Catholics  has  not  risen  higher  than  mere  going  to 
church  and  going  to  the  polls.  May  we  never  forget  these 
two  essentials ;  they  are  the  leaven  which  leaveneth  the  whole 
lump.  But  there  are  other  walks  of  citizenship  in  which  we 
can  take  large  part  also.  The  mere  alignment  of  political 
parties  or  the  procurement  of  prominent  office  is  not  the 
whole  of  the  duties  of  citizenship.  We  must  enter  into  the 
greater  civic  life  around  us,  until  in  every  phase  of  it  we 
have  as  many  representatives  as  our  Catholic  population  bears 
to  the  general  population  of  the  state.  No  civic  endeavor 
should  be  set  on  foot  without  its  proportion  of  Catholics. 

There  is  work  enough  for  all  of  us;  the  formation  of  a 
healthy  public  opinion  demands  our  best  energies.    There  are 


26o  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

the  endless  forms  of  charitable  and  educational  work  through- 
out the  state — I  do  not  mean  the  institutions  which  are  purely 
Catholic  in  origin  and  management — which  require  the  intel- 
ligent, energetic  service  of  every  man  who  can  assist  and 
uplift  his  fellow-man.  Yet  how  many  Catholics  are  there  upon 
such  boards  and  committees,  working  side  by  side  with  their 
fellow-citizens?  The  questions  of  labor,  wages,  working 
hours,  factory  laws,  compensation  for  accidents,  protection 
from  machinery,  child  labor,  women's  work,  co-operative 
banks  and  building  associations,  housing,  tenement  reform, 
sweat-shop,  home  industries,  and  the  myriad  questions  of 
capital,  labor  and  just  treatment  which  concern  these  things, 
require  Catholics,  as  well  as  non-Catholics,  to  solve  them  and 
set  them  aright. 

There  is  immense  room  for  constructive  social  work,  such 
as  congestion  in  cities,  reformation  of  young  delinquents,  the 
incoming  of  immigration,  placing  the  foreign  population  where 
it  will  do  the  most  good  both  to  itself  and  to  the  state  at 
large,  and  there  is  even  greater  room  for  the  discussion  and 
solution  of  the  larger  civic  and  moral  questions,  which  I  need 
not  touch  upon  in  detail.  In  each  of  these.  Catholics  should 
take  large  part.  It  ought  to  be  worth  while  for  our  neighbors 
to  know  that  there  is  often  a  Catholic  point  of  view  upon  all 
such  things,  just  as  there  is  a  Catholic  view  upon  the  questions 
concerning  the  family  and  the  home  and  all  that  tends  to  drag 
them  down,  and  it  ought  to  be  made  worth  their  while  to  have 
them  know  our  opinion  upon  all  those  things,  even  if  only 
for  the  sake  of  broad  enlightenment,  and  to  ask  our  cordial 
assistance  in  every  movement  which  makes  for  the  betterment 
of  man,  and  the  production  of  a  nobler  citizen  for  the  state. 

We  have  the  men  capable  of  studying  and  of  giving  vast 
assistance  in  the  solution  of  all  the  complex  problems  of  the 
higher,  greater  and  wider  citizenship  which  looks  after  the 
well-being  and  improvement  of  our  fellow-men,  and  which 
looks  further  than  the  mere  carrying  of  the  election  at  hand. 
Our  citizenship  cannot  be  better  employed  than  in  entering 
upon  these  larger  fields  of  human  endeavor.  Just  as  we  have 
already  made  an  impression  upon  the  political  life  of  this 
and  other  states,  just  as  we  have  convinced  the  powers  who 
write  political  platforms  that  we  are  persons  to  be  in  a  meas- 
ure reckoned  with,  either  for  votes  or  for  office,  so  also  should 


A  VISION  OF  AMERICAN  CITIZENSHIP      261 

it  be  our  duty  now  to  impress  upon  our  fellow-citizens  the 
fact  that  there  is  no  public  question  of  the  hour,  whether  so- 
cial, political  or  economic,  in  which  we  are  not  interested  and 
in  which  we  are  not  capable  of  aiding  in  the  solution.  Every 
board,  every  committee,,  every  general  body,  organized  in  any 
state  for  the  study,  elucidation  or  improvement  of  public 
questions  or  conditions,  should  have  upon  it  its  quota  of 
Catholic  members. 

We  must  not  lag  behind  our  brethren.  If  we  do,  we  fail 
to  convince  them  that  we  are  ready  and  willing  to  be  of 
assistance  and  that  we  should  be  consulted  by  them  in  such 
matters;  and  we  fail  to  do  our  duty  as  citizens  of  this  great 
country  of  ours.  The  public  morality  and  conscience  of 
every  state,  or  of  the  United  States,  the  social,  charitable, 
economic  and  mental  development  of  the  masses  of  the  peo- 
ple, should  not  be  left  in  the  exclusive  control  of  our  brethren 
who  are  not  of  us.  True,  we  may  work  in  parallel  lines  in 
our  own  institutions  with  our  own  people  chiefly  as  the  sub- 
ject of  our  ministrations;  but  that  is  not  our  whole  duty  nor 
indeed  its  final  aim.  That  is  apt  to  make  us  exclusive,  on 
the  one  hand,  or  indifferent,  on  the  other.  While  we  should 
do  our  duty  towards  our  own,  we  cannot  afford  to  estrange 
ourselves  from  our  neighbors ;  and  our  part  in  the  civic,  moral, 
social  and  economic  problems  of  the  state  as  a  whole  will  be 
both  beneficial  to  us  and  to  our  fellow-citizens.  Our  devo- 
tion to  those  things  will  not  diminish  our  devotion  to  our 
own  interests  and  to  our  own  institutions. 

The  entry  of  large-minded,  active,  real  Catholics,  who 
know  their  faith  and  their  country  and  all  the  motives  that 
lead  to  zeal  and  patriotism,  will  be  the  largest  and  greatest 
boon  which  the  Knights  of  Columbus  can  bestow  on  the  state 
of  which  they  are  citizens.  Terence  said :  "Homo  sum ; 
et  nihil  humanum  mihi  alienum  est."  (I  am  a  man;  and 
nothing  which  concerns  manhood  is  foreign  to  me.)  So,  too, 
the  Knights  of  Columbus  may  well  say,  "We  are  citizens  of 
this  noble  land,  and  nothing  that  concerns  the  life  or  the 
welfare  of  the  citizen  shall  be  foreign  to  us." 

I  conclude  with  the  sincere  prayer  that  the  Order  may  grow 
from  day  to  day  more  powerful  and  more  influential,  that 
its  love  for  the  Church  may  be  an  incentive  and  a  guiding 
star  for  good  works,  that  its  American  citizenship  may  so 


262  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

grow  and  expand  and  so  impress  itself  upon  our  fellow-citi- 
zens that  no  question  which  concerns  the  citizen  of  to-day 
or  of  to-morrow,  or  which  concerns  the  policy,  acts  and  needs 
of  our  common  country  at  any  time,  shall  be  considered,  acted 
upon  or  decided  without  Catholic  representatives  in  every  walk 
in  life  to  take  counsel  with  their  fellow-citizens.  If  the  great 
needs  of  life  and  civic  conduct  are  to  be  met,  we  should  stand 
as  a  necessary  and  important  part  among  those  who  are  to 
meet  them.  In  this  way  may  our  country  best  count  upon 
our  service,  for  we  shall  be 

"Those  that  by  their  deeds  will  make  it  known 

Whose  dignity  they  do  sustain; 

And  life,  state,  glory,  all  they  gain, 
Count  the  republic's,  not  their  own." 


STRETCHING  THE  CONSTITUTION 

WHEN  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  de- 
cided the  now  famous  Standard  Oil  and  Tobacco 
Trust  cases  under  the  Sherman  Act,  much  was  said 
about  the  Court  having  practically  made  new  law  by  inserting, 
so  its  critics  claimed,  the  word  "reasonable"  in  a  statute 
which  did  not  contain  that  word.  The  more  hostile  critics 
said  that  the  Supreme  Court,  instead  of  interpreting  law,  was 
in  reality  creating  a  new  and  a  different  one.  But  this  was 
said  of  the  most  august  tribunal  in  the  United  States,  if  not 
in  the  world,  in  regard  to  its  decision  concerning  a  statute 
made  by  its  co-ordinate  branch  of  the  government,  and  con- 
cerning which  it  was  vested  with  the  power  of  review  in  cer- 
tain respects.  Yet  the  Supreme  Court  never  went  so  far  as 
to  interpolate  or  overrule  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  even  though  it  be  the  highest  tribunal  in  the  land. 
That  exploit  was  left  for  a  subordinate  government  official — 
one  who  was  charged  with  no  duty  whatever  in  regard  to  law 
and  procedure, — one  Robert  G.  Valentine,  Commissioner  of 
Indian  Affairs.  If  criticism  could  attack  the  acts  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  whilst  doing  its  duty  in  the  interpretation  of  a 
statute,  how  much  and  how  bitter  ought  to  be  the  criticism 
of  Mr.  Valentine  and  those  like  him,  who  go  out  of  their 
way  to  meddle  in  matters  for  which  they  have  no  warrant 
at  all? 

On  the  27th  of  January,  1912,  Robert  G.  Valentine,  the 
Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs,  propria  motu,  ex-officio,  ex- 
cathedra  and  ex-perversitate,  without  any  inquiry,  any  notice 
or  any  reason  demanding  it  and  even  without  any  consulta- 
tion with  his  departmental  superiors,  issued  the  following 
order: 

To  Superintendents  in  charge  of  Indian  schools: 

In  accordance  with  that  essential  principle  in  our  National 
life — the  separation  of  Church  and  State — as  applied  by  me  to 

263 


264  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

the  Indian  Service,  which  as  to  ceremonies  and  exercises  is 
now  being  enforced  under  the  existing  religious  regulations,  I 
find  it  necessary  to  issue  this  order  supplementary  to  those 
regulations  to  cover  the  use  at  those  exercises  and  at  other 
times  of  insignia  and  garb  as  used  by  various  denominations. 
At  exercises  of  any  particular  denomination  there  is,  of  course, 
no  restriction  in  this  respect,  but  at  the  general  assembly 
exercises  and  in  the  public  school  rooms,  or  on  the  grounds 
when  on  duty,  insignia  or  garb  has  no  justification. 

In  Government  schools  all  insignia  of  any  denomination 
must  be  removed  from  all  public  rooms,  and  members  of  any 
denomination  wearing  distinctive  garb  should  leave  such  garb 
oflf  while  engaged  at  lay  duties  as  Government  employes.  If 
any  case  exists  where  such  an  employe  cannot  conscientiously 
do  this  he  will  be  given  a  reasonable  time,  not  to  extend, 
however,  beyond  the  opening  of  the  next  school  year  after 
the  date  of  this  order,  to  make  arrangements  for  employ- 
ment elsewhere  than  in  Federal  Indian  schools.     Respectfully, 

Robert  G.  Valentine, 
Commissioner. 

This  order  of  the  Indian  Commissioner  in  wording  reveals 
something  of  the  manner  of  a  Tsar.  He  begins:  "In  ac- 
cordance with  that  essential  principle  of  our  National  life — 
the  separation  of  Church  and  State — as  applied  by  me  to  the 
Indian  Service,"  &c.  Most  officials  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  where  they  are  not  clothed  with  judicial  func- 
tions, are  content  to  rely  upon  the  guidance  of  a  court  made 
upon  cases  arising  out  of  an  actual  grievance  and  complaint 
carried  to  judgment,  for  the  application  of  the  principles  of 
fundamental  American  law.  But  that  view  hardly  seems  to 
have  suited  Commissioner  Valentine;  he  preferred  to  have 
them  "as  applied  by  me." 

Many  persons  misunderstand  the  language  of  the  Consti- 
tution in  regard  to  the  separate  functions  of  Church  and  State, 
and  imagine  all  sorts  of  wild  things.  The  language  of  the 
first  amendment  to  the  Constitution  is :  "Congress  shall  make 
no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion  or  prohibiting 
the  free  exercise  thereof."  Prejudice,  oppression,  hostility  or 
suppression  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  a  religion  is 
as  much  forbidden  thereby  on  the  one  hand,  as  is  favoritism 
or  exaltation  of  a  particular  religion  on  the  other.  But  this 
amendment  was  never  intended  to  be  a  shield  for  unfriendly 
acts  against  any  denomination.  Besides  this,  the  eleventh 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  expressly  provides  that,  "Pow- 
ers not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution  nor 


STRETCHING  THE  CONSTITUTION  265 

prohibited  by  it  to  the  states,  are  reserved  to  the  states  re- 
spectively, or  to  the  people."  These  are  the  fundamentals 
upon  which  the  action  of  Congress  and  of  the  United  States 
in  regard  to  religion  is  founded.  There  are  enough  examples 
in  the  books  to  show  that  the  action  of  Commissioner  Valen- 
tine in  making  such  an  order  was  officious  and  arbitrary.  It 
was  not  even  founded  upon  any  necessity  or  any  complaint, 
but  merely  upon  his  idea  "as  applied  by  me"  as  to  what  the 
relations  between  Church  and  State  should  be  in  his  depart- 
ment. 

Although  the  Catholic  Church  is  not  mentioned  by  name  in 
the  order,  yet  it  is  a  fact  that  no  other  denomination  has  in 
the  Indian  schools  any  of  its  members  who  are  consecrated 
to  the  religious  life  and  who  wear  any  clothing  or  insignia 
which  indicate  that  they  are  so  consecrated  to  a  holy  life 
of  devotion.  In  other  words,  the  Catholic  teachers  in  the  In- 
dian schools  are  the  only  ones  who  wear  a  religious  garb,  and 
hence  the  order  is  meant  solely  for  Catholics,  although  tht 
name  Catholic  is  not  therein  mentioned.  As  well  might  an 
official  in  the  War  Department  make  an  order  that  Catholic 
Sisters  of  Charity  should  not  wear  their  habit  when  minister- 
ing to  the  sick  and  wounded,  as  to  say  that  a  Catholic  teacher 
shall  not  wear  her  or  his  habit  in  teaching  arithmetic  or  di- 
recting play  on  the  grounds.  What  the  government  needs  and 
requires  are  results ;  and  until  a  complaint  is  made  that  teach- 
ers wearing  a  religious  garb  are  lax  in  teaching  or  discipline, 
there  is  no  more  justification  for  Commissioner  Valentine's 
order  than  there  would  be  for  one  directing  what  color  of  a 
coat  and  cravat  he  himself  shall  wear  when  on  duty. 

It  is  well  that  the  Chief  Executive  of  the  United  States  is  at 
present  a  man  of  wide  knowledge  and  experience,  who  has  had 
an  extended  career  upon  the  bench  as  a  Federal  judge  and 
in  actual  government  as  a  cabinet  officer,  and  who  is  apt  to 
weigh  carefully  and  advisedly  matters  purporting  to  be  an 
interpretation  of  the  Constitution  and  existing  laws.  He  is 
not  apt  to  take  things  "as  applied  by  me,"  but  following  his 
judicial  training  desires  to  hear  all  sides  before  deciding. 
When,  therefore,  President  Taft  learned  of  this  extraordinary 
and  uncalled-for  order,  he  promptly  revoked  it  in  the  following 
letter : 


2(£  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

My  Dear  Mr.  Secretary  : — It  has  been  brought  to  my 
attention  that  an  order  has  been  issued  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Indian  Schools.  This  order  relates  to  the  general  matter 
which  you  and  I  have  had  under  consideration  and  concern- 
ing which,  at  your  request,  the  Commissioner  was  collect- 
ing detailed  information  for  our  advice.  The  Commis- 
sioner's order  has  been  made  without  consultation  with  either 
you  or  me. 

It  prohibits  not  only  the  use  of  distinctive  religious  insignia 
at  school  exercises,  but  also  the  wearing  of  distinctive  religious 
garb  by  school  employes,  and  provides  that  if  any  school  em- 
ploye cannot  conscientiously  comply  with  the  order  such 
employe  will  be  given  a  reasonable  time,  not  to  extend,  how- 
ever, beyond  the  opening  of  the  next  school  year,  to  make 
arrangements  for  employment  elsewhere  than  in  Federal 
Indian  schools. 

I  fully  believe  in  the  principle  of  the  separation  of  the 
Church  and  State,  on  which  our  Government  is  based,  but  the 
questions  presented  by  this  order  are  of  great  importance  and 
delicacy.  They  arise  out  of  the  fact  that  the  Government  has 
for  a  considerable  period  taken  for  use  of  the  Indians  certain 
schools  theretofore  belonging  to  and  conducted  by  distinctive 
religious  societies  or  churches.  As  a  part  of  the  arrange- 
ment then  made  the  school  employes  then  employed,  who 
were  in  many  cases  members  of  religious  orders  wearing 
the  distinctive  garb  of  these  orders,  were  continued  as  teachers 
by  the  Government,  and  by  ruling  of  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
mission or  by  Executive  action  they  have  been  included  in  the 
classified  service  under  the  protection  of  the  Civil  Service  law. 

The  Commissioner's  order  almost  necessarily  amounts  to  a 
discharge  from  the  Federal  service  of  those  who  have  entered 
it.  This  should  not  be  done  without  a  careful  consideration 
of  all  phases  of  the  matter  nor  without  giving  the  persons 
directly  affected  an  opportunity  to  be  heard.  As  the  order 
would  not  in  any  event  take  effect  until  the  beginning  of  the 
next  school  year,  /  direct  that  it  be  revoked  and  the  action  by 
the  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs  in  respect  thereto  be  sus- 
pended until  such  time  as  will  permit  a  full  hearing  to  be 
given  to  all  parties  in  interest  and  a  conclusion  to  be  reached 
in  respect  to  the  matter  after  full  deliberation. 

Sincerely  yours, 

William  H.  Taft. 

This  was  the  letter  of  a  just  and  courageous  man,  and  it 
expresses  the  spirit  of  fair  play  by  which  Catholics  every- 
where are  content  to  abide.  It  was  a  well-merited  rebuke  to 
the  author  of  the  inconsiderate  order  conceived  in  hostility 
to  Catholics  alone;  and  all  publicity  should  be  given  to  the 
scope  and  purpose  of  such  a  letter.  It  is  not  the  first  time 
that  such  attempts  have  been  made  at  Washington  to  attack 
Catholic  customs  and  usages,  now  that  the  old-time  method 
of  openly  vilifying  them  will  no  longer  answer.     Representa- 


STRETCHING  THE  CONSTITUTION  26'] 

tive  John  Hall  Stephens,  of  the  Thirteenth  Congressional 
District  of  Texas,  has  for  some  time  been  a  leader  in  such 
matters.  A  few  of  his  exploits  in  the  way  of  stretching  the 
simple  words  of  the  Constitution  so  as  to  make  them  the  cloak 
for  his  hostility  to  things  Catholic  are  shown  in  the  various 
bills  and  resolutions  he  has  introduced  in  Congress. 

Thus  in  the  Fifty-eighth  Congress,  where  a  clause  was  at- 
tached to  the   Indian  Appropriation  Bill  restoring  to  Indian 
Catholic  pupils  attending  Catholic  schools  the  rations  which 
had  been  denied  them  by  the  then  Commissioner  of  Indian 
Affairs, — and  the  bill  had  passed  the  Senate  without  opposi- 
tion,— Mr.  Stephens  distinguished  himself  as  being  the  only 
man   in   the   House   of   Representatives   who   was   against   it. 
Later,  in  order  to  prevent  and  make  illegal  the  use  of  Indian 
tribal   funds    (the   Indians'  own   money,   mark  you)    for  the 
education   of    Catholic    Indian    children    in    Catholic    Mission 
schools,  Mr.  Stephens  offered  an  amendment  to  the  Indian 
Appropriation    Bill    forbidding    the    use    of    such    funds    for 
any  such  purpose.    When  an  amendment  to  the  Bill  was  made 
in  the  Senate  reinstating  the  Stephens  amendment,  which  had 
been  ruled  out  in  the  House,  and  the  matter  came  up  in  con- 
ference between  the  two   Houses,  where   it  was   eliminated, 
Mr.   Stephens   refused  to   sign  the  Conference  Report,   and 
when  that  report  came  before  the  House   for  adoption,   he 
protested  vigorously  against  the  omission  of  the  Senate  amend- 
ment.    Later  on  in  the  session  he  introduced  a  bill  entitled, 
"A  Bill  to  prohibit  the  use  of  Indian  Trust  Funds  for  the  pur- 
pose of  educating  Indian  children  in  sectarian  schools,"  thus 
intending  to  cut  off  Catholic  schools  from  the  funds  of  the 
Indians  whom  they  were  engaged  in  educating.    These  funds 
represented  the  value  of  Indian  lands  taken  by  the  government, 
and  could  be  devoted  by  the  Indians  or  by  the  United  States 
government,  as  their  trustee,  to  their  education  by  such  per- 
sons as  they  might  desire.     Finally,  the  very  latest  exploit  of 
Mr.  Stephens,  and  one  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  fore- 
runner of  the  Valentine  "applied  by  me"  order,  was  a  reso- 
lution which  he  introduced  into  the  House  of  Representatives 
on  June  21,  191 1,  which  requested  information  from  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Interior  on  "sectarian  or  other  schools  purchased, 
'covered  in,'  or  over  which  control  has  been  assumed  through 
lease  or  gratuitous  grant,  for  use  of  the  Indian  service  within 


268  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

the  past  six  years,"  and  the  Secretary  "is  further  requested  to 
report  whether  rehgious  symbols,  emblems  or  garbs  of  any 
particular  religious  denomination  or  society  are  permitted  to 
be  worn  or  used  or  publicly  exhibited  and  kept,  by  employees 
in  the  Indian  school  service,  or  within  or  upon  property  under 
government  control  in  the  Indian  service." 

Here  was  a  dead  set  made  at  the  Sisters  and  Catholic 
mission  schools  which  were  taken  over  into  the  govern- 
ment service, — all  made  with  the  intent  of  crippling  and  dimin- 
ishing whatever  religious  power  and  good  Catholic  teachers 
and  missionaries  might  derive  from  the  public  announcement 
and  exhibition  of  the  faith  they  believed  in.  It  was  an  act  of 
hostility  to  the  Church  and  her  teachers,  and  it  came  in  spirit 
(and  in  fact,  when  coupled  with  the  Valentine  order)  within 
the  Constitutional  prohibition  against  Congress  taking  any 
steps  "prohibiting  the  free  exercise"  of  any  particular  religion. 
Neither  Congress  nor  the  government  has  any  right  to  de- 
prive Catholic  Indian  children  of  the  privilege  of  learning 
their  Faith  in  the  manner  in  which  it  could  be  freely  taught 
outside  the  government  school.  If  it  does,  then  it  is  a  dis- 
crimination against  them,  virtually  a  prohibition  against  "the 
free  exercise  thereof." 

This  is  more  evident  when  we  consider  that  the  only  schools 
in  which  a  religious  garb  is  worn  are  Catholic  schools.  If 
it  were  a  case  in  which  teachers,  who  were  Sisters  garbed  in 
the  habit  of  their  order,  were  employed  to  teach  Protestant, 
Catholic  and  pagan  Indians  in  a  mixed  assemblage,  the  argu- 
ment against  a  religious  garb  might  have  some  force.  But  why 
Catholic  Sisters  should  be  prohibited  from  wearing  their  dis- 
tinctive habit  while  teaching  Catholic  children  passes  com- 
prehension. Because  they  put  in  practice  what  they  teach 
in  precept,  therefore  they  are  to  be  condemned.  When  these 
schools  were  taken  over  by  the  government,  and  thenceforth 
run  as  government  schools,  it  certainly  could  not  mean  that 
Catholic  usages,  customs  and  garb  were  to  be  remorselessly 
suppressed.  Yet  that  is  exactly  what  Commissioner  Valentine 
seeks  to  do.     Let  us  review  the  facts. 

In  1874  the  Grey  Nuns  from  Montreal  entered  the  United 
States  government  service  as  teachers  in  the  Indian  School  for 
Sioux  children  which  was  established  at  Fort  Totten,  Devil's 
Lake  Agency,  N.  D.     The  Indians  of  this  Agency  are  Catho- 


STRETCHING  THE  CONSTITUTION  269 

lies.     At  the  present  time  the  Sisters  at  this  school  possibly 
number  eight. 

In  1877  the  Benedictine  Sisters  were  employed  by  the  go\ 
ernment  at  the  school  at  Fort  Yates,  Standing  Rock  Reserva- 
tion, N.  D.     This  school  still  remains  a  government  school 
and  there  are  less  than  eight  Sisters  employed  there. 

About  twenty  years  ago  Mother  M.  Katherine  Drexel  built 
a  boarding  school  building  at  Elbowoods,  Fort  Berthold  Reser- 
vation, N.  D.,  but  the  school  was  never  opened.  The  Indians 
continually  clamored  for  a  Sisters'  school.  The  Indian  Bu- 
reau because  of  lack  of  money  could  not  accede  to  their  wishes. 
In  1909  the  Assistant  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs  visited 
Elbowoods  and  the  Indians  appealed  to  him.  As  the  Bureau 
could  not  support  the  school,  the  Assistant  Commissioner  be- 
lieved the  conditions  justified  the  employment  by  the  govern- 
ment of  Catholic  religious  as  teachers,  and  in  1910  the  Bene- 
dictine Sisters  started  a  boarding  school  at  Elbowoods  and 
this  on  September  i,  191 1,  was  covered  into  the  government 
service,  and  they  are  still  serving  as  government  employees. 
They  are  seven  in  number. 

St.  Patrick's  Mission  School  at  Andarko,  Oklahoma,  was 
burned  in  1909.  Father  Isidore  Ricklin,  O.  S.  B.,  the  Su- 
perintendent, spent  a  year  collecting  funds  to  rebuild;  among 
the  contributors  was  even  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie,  whose  atti- 
tude to  sectarian  schools  is  well  known,  but  who  appreciated 
the  good  work  done  by  it.  When  the  school  was  rebuilt,  a 
government  school  in  the  vicinity,  known  as  the  Riverside 
School,  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The  government  authorities 
then  thought  it  good  policy,  instead  of  rebuilding,  to  make 
use  of  St.  Patrick's  School  by  making  it  a  government  insti- 
tution. Accordingly  on  December  i,  191 1,  the  property  was 
leased  by  the  government  and  the  personnel  of  the  institution 
taken  over  as  government  employees.  They,  according  to 
the  Indian  office,  number  nine. 

The  Catholic  Mission  Day  Schools  at  Odanah,  Red  Cliff 
and  Lac  Courtes  Oreilles,  in  Wisconsin,  taught  by  the  Fran- 
ciscan Sisters,  were  leased  by  the  government,  and  the  teachers 
covered  into  the  government  service.  They  number  six  in 
these  three   schools. 

The  Catholic  Mission  Day  Schools  at  Jamez,  New  Mexico, 
with  two   Franciscan   Sisters,   and   at   San   Xavier,   Arizona, 


270  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

with  three  Sisters,  were  also  taken  over  in  1910.  The  whole 
number  of  employees  in  the  Indian  school  service  afifected 
by  the  "religious  garb  order"  is  given  by  the  Indian  Bureau 
as   forty-six  all  told. 

While  the  schools  of  the  Grey  Nuns  at  Fort  Totten  and 
those  of  the  Benedictine  Sisters  at  Fort  Yates  have  been  con- 
ducted in  buildings  that  have  always  belonged  to  the  United 
States  government,  yet  during  the  thirty-eight  years  of  service 
of  the  former  and  the  thirty-five  years  of  the  latter,  no  com- 
plaint has  ever  been  made  as  to  the  religious  insignia  or  the 
"religious  garb"  by  the  Indians  directly  affected,  by  the  gov- 
ernment officials  in  charge,  or  by  any  responsible  person  from 
any  quarter.  It  remained  for  the  complaint  (if  there  were 
any  complaint  other  than  an  ex-parte  order)  to  originate  in 
Washington,  and  to  consist  of  objections  upon  theoretical 
"constitutional"  grounds  of  separation  of  Church  and  State, 
made  by  Chairman  Stephens  of  the  House  Indian  Committee, 
the  President  of  the  Home  Missions  Council,  and  Commis- 
sioner Valentine  on  their  own  volition,  and  not  in  consequence 
of  any  complaints  from  the  parties  concerned. 

The  Rev.  Charles  L.  Thompson,  a  Presbyterian  clergyman 
of  No.  150  Fifth  Avenue,  the  President  of  the  Home  Mis- 
sions Council,  and  also  in  charge  of  the  Presbyterian  Home 
Missions,  as  soon  as  he  saw  Commissioner  Valentine's  order, 
wrote  to  President  Taft  that  "The  action  of  the  Hon.  Com- 
missioner of  Indian  Affairs  issued  January  ^J  relative  to  sec- 
tarian insignia  and  garb  in  Federal  Indian  Schools  is  to  our 
minds  so  manifestly  American  in  spirit,  so  judicial  and  right- 
eous that  we  heartily  approve  and  commend  it.  We  did  not 
know  such  an  order  was  in  preparation,  but  we  now  express 
our  commendation  and  ask  that  nothing  be  permitted  to 
weaken  its  force."  The  President  acknowledged  the  letter 
through  his  secretary,  but  issued  his  order  of  revocation. 

As  showing  the  latitude  of  Mr.  Thompson's  ideas  of  what 
is  "judicial  and  righteous,"  attention  should  be  called  to  the 
fact  that  he  is  objecting  to  Catholic  Sisters  teaching  Catholic 
children  in  Catholic  schools  in  Catholic  garb,  whilst  he  him- 
self is  engaged  at  the  same  time  in  proselytizing  Catholic 
Ruthenian  immigrants  and  children  in  the  Hope  Chapel  Pres- 
byterian Mission  on  the  East  Side  in  New  York  City  by  means 
of  Presbyterian  mission  workers  garbed  in  Catholic  Mass  vest- 


STRETCHING  THE  CONSTITUTION  271 

ments  and  going  through  an  imitation  of  the  Catholic  Mass. 
Evidently  the  garb  question — when  it  comes  to  masquerading 
in  Catholic  altar  vestments  for  Presbyterian  purposes, — is  not 
of  so  much  moment,  as  when  he  seeks  to  deprive  Catholic  Sis- 
ters of  what  they  have  been  doing  consistently  and  legitimately 
for  the  past  thirty  years. 

The  writer  is  not  of  Mr.  Taft's  political  party  nor  is  he  a 
member  of  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  but  he  believes  that  the 
facts  of  this  latest  attack  upon  Catholic  Sisters  and  the  con- 
tract rights  of  Catholic  schools  should  be  known,  as  well  as 
the  energetic  stand  so  promptly  taken  to  prevent  their  loss ; 
and  there  is  no  body  of  men  throughout  the  United  States  who 
can  better  assert  the  rights  to  which  Catholics  in  their  relations 
with  their  fellow-men  and  with  the  government  are  entitled 
than  the  Knights  of  Columbus.  The  arbitrary  act  of  Commis- 
sioner Valentine  constitutes  one  of  those  acts  against  which 
protest  was  made  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence :  "de- 
claring himself  invested  with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all 
cases  whatsoever,"  and  it  should  be  characterized  accordingly, 
whilst  the  action  of  the  President  in  stating  that,  "The  Com- 
missioner's order  almost  necessarily  amounts  to  a  discharge 
from  the  Federal  service  of  those  who  have  entered  it 
*  *  *  without  giving  the  persons  affected  an  opportunity  to 
be  heard"  is  a  call  to  exercise  the  square  deal  and  fair  play. 


THE  CATHOLIC  PART  IN  CIVIC 
PROGRESS 

WHEN  we  consider  that  the  discovery  of  America 
by  that  great  navigator  whose  name  we  have 
chosen  for  our  Order,  was  made  not  merely  for 
discovery,  but  for  the  spread  of  the  Catholic  faith,  and  that 
during  the  succeeding  century  the  greatest  explorers,  discov- 
erers, colonizers  and  civilizers  of  this  western  world  of  ours 
were  men  of  Catholic  Faith  and  ideals,  we  should  be  keenly 
alive  to  the  part  which  Catholic  culture,  training  and  ideals 
should  play  in  the  present  development  of  our  country.  If 
men  of  our  faith  started  with  the  country  in  the  gift  to  it  of 
European  development  and  expansion,  men  of  our  faith 
should  at  all  times  be  ready  to  do  their  part  in  the  common 
weal  and  advancement  to  the  very  latest  moment  of  passing 
time. 

When  men  of  Catholic  Faith  and  lineage  were  first  on  the 
field  and  made  a  goodly  record  for  themselves  in  every  walk 
of  life,  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  they  failed  to  keep  pace 
with  the  growth  of  our  country  in  succeeding  centuries.    What 
chiefly  happened  was  that  their  deeds  and  influence  were  not 
felt  or  recorded   in   any  fitting   degree   after  the    settlement 
of  North  America  by  those  nations  which  had  broken  away 
from    allegiance    to    the    old    historic    faith    of    Christendom. 
Then,  too,  when  persecution,  contempt  and  slander,  so  rife  in 
those  rancorous  times,  had  done  their  work,  little  wonder  was 
it  that  it  should  be  thought  and  generally  reputed  that  Catho- 
lics had  but  slight  share  in  the  civic  progress  and  wonderful 
blossoming  of  our  great  American  Republic.    The  current  of 
the  then  public  opinion  set  strongly  against  the  Church  and 
its  teachings,  its  philosophy  and  ideals,  and  those  who  repre- 
sented Catholic  belief  and  practice  were  mainly  poor  and  de- 
spised.   It  was  the  time  when  the  supreme  effort  among  Catho- 
lics was  to  keep  alive  the  Faith  itself  in  the  hearts  and  minds 

272 


THE  CATHOLIC  PART  IN  CIVIC  PROGRESS     273 

of  the  lowly  people  and  lead  them  on  to  better  things,  and 
hence  there  could  be  but  little  active  participation  in  the  line 
of  civic  progress,  except  as  exemplified  in  the  orderly  conduct, 
devotion  and  patriotism  of  that  very  lowly  class  which  com- 
prised the  bulk  of  the  Catholics. 

Yet  even  in  the  days  of  the  early  formation  of  our  coun- 
try— in  its  closer  knitting  of  colonial  confederation,  in  its 
mutual  safeguarding  of  human  interests,  in  the  struggle  for 
independence  and  the  foundation  of  the  infant  republic — 
Catholics  took  a  large  part  in  the  civic  progress  and  develop- 
ment of  the  nation.  We  had  a  Dongan  who  gave  in  those 
days  to  New  York  the  freest  charter  which  she  ever  had,  a 
Lord  Baltimore  who  was  the  forerunner  of  religious  liberty 
and  freedom  of  worship  throughout  our  broad  land,  a  Carroll 
who  was  the  staunchest  defender  of  the  rights  of  the  colonies 
to  resist  oppression  and  set  up  independent  government,  and 
the  leaders  of  armies  and  navies  in  our  subsequent  contests  on 
land  and  sea  in  defense  of  our  struggling  and  growing  nation. 
The  mass  of  Catholics  in  colonial  times  and  for  the  first  fifty 
years  of  our  national  life  were  sore  beset  with  the  menacing 
problems  of  mere  livelihood,  with  the  honest,  eager  endeavor 
to  get  on  in  the  material  sense  of  the  word  and  yet  keep  true 
to  the  principles  and  teachings  of  their  Faith  and  too  busied 
thereby  to  have  much  leisure  and  to  have,  still  less,  material 
means  to  devote  to  the  higher  questions  of  civic  progress  and 
development  except  as  exemplified  in  the  individual.  But  that 
they  thought  of  it,  and  that  Catholic  Faith  and  philosophy  re- 
quired it,  the  names  we  have  mentioned  of  those  more  for- 
tunately  situated  than   their   fellows   fully   attest. 

But  as  time  has  gone  on  the  fortunes  of  the  Catholic  por- 
tion of  the  citizens  of  this  great  land  of  ours  have  improved. 
A  few  have  become  wealthy ;  most  of  them  are  more  or  less 
well  to  do  in  the  sense  that  the  struggle  for  mere  existence 
has  ceased  to  be  a  problem,  whilst  all  of  them  are  hopeful, 
earnest  and  sanguine  of  the  future  of  their  common  religion 
and  their  varied  races  in  our  land.  The  expansion  and  de- 
velopment of  the  faith  is  provided  for  in  the  ever-increasing 
number  of  churches  and  religious  institutions  throughout  the 
country,  works  of  charity  and  benevolence  are  ever  widening 
and  reaching  out  towards  all  classes  requiring  their  minis- 
trations, schools,  colleges  and  universities  under  Catholic  aus- 


274  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

pices  are  spreading  education  and  culture  among  all  our  peo- 
ple, and  in  many  cases  sharply  competing  with  educational 
institutions  endowed  with  the  wealth  and  lavish  expenditure 
of  the  state,  whilst  the  Church  has  commenced  upon  a  large 
scale  to  earnestly  set  forth  her  achievements  in  the  domain 
of  human  thought  and  progress  affecting  the  world  at  large, 
whether  Catholic  or  not.  An  active,  awakening  Catholic  press 
is  providing  books  of  literature,  science,  philosophy,  history 
and  art,  imbued  with  the  basic  principles  of  Catholic  thought, 
and  non-Catholic  publishers  have  become  so  fully  aware  of 
the  excellence  of  these  works  that  they  are  ready  to  place 
upon  their  lists  and  thoroughly  advertise  the  merits  of  the 
writings  of  representative  Catholic  authors.  A  notable  step 
forward  has  been  the  creation  and  publication  of  the 
voluminous  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  a  monument  of  and  an 
inspiration  for  Catholic  endeavor  in  almost  every  line  of  ac- 
tivity which  touches  the  world  at  large. 

These  things  alone  would  be  a  fair  measure  of  the  impress 
of  Catholic  thought  and  activity  in  the  progress  of  our  coun- 
try. When  we  add  to  that  the  number  of  men  of  Catholic  Faith 
in  the  various  branches  of  the  different  state  and  Federal  gov- 
ernmental bodies,  and  agencies  for  the  uplifting  and  better- 
ment of  the  people,  men  who  have  the  opportunity  of  partici- 
pating in  and  moulding  the  just  and  equitable  powers  of  the 
state  in  the  treatment  and  conservation  of  the  respective  rights 
of  capital  and  labor,  of  the  employer  and  employee,  of  the 
great  aggregations  of  capital  and  contractual  interrelations 
controlling  the  resources  of  this  country,  we  may  be  glad  that 
we  are  enabled  to  take  such  part  in  the  destinies  of  our 
common  land. 

But  ought  we  rest  content  with  the  part  already  played  by 
Catholics  in  our  civic  relations?  Is  not  more  demanded  of 
us  by  the  very  reason  of  our  own  individual  progress  and 
growth  ?  Let  us  remember  in  going  over  the  history  of  Euro- 
pean peoples  and  their  civilization  that  there  is  no  other  move- 
ment or  organized  system  of  morals  and  philosophy  of  life — 
to  say  nothing  of  revelation  and  religion  at  all — which  has 
produced  so  great  an  impress  upon  mankind  as  the  Catholic 
Church  and  all  it  stands  for.  It  saw  the  Caesars  and  defied 
them ;  it  is  to-day  face  to  face  with  the  French  and  Portuguese 
Republics  and  will  not  yield  its  principles.     Such  a  force  in 


THE  CATHOLIC  PART  IN  CIVIC  PROGRESS      275 

history,  in  morals  and  in  civilization — viewed  merely  as  a 
factor  in  the  record  of  the  world — cannot  be  ignored.  If  the 
principles  of  revealed  religion,  morality  and  right  living  and 
thinking  which  overcame  the  pagan  world  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  which  subdued  the  fierce  barbarians  of  Northern 
Europe  and  converted  them  into  the  pillars  of  the  civiliza- 
tion of  to-day,  and  hurled  back  the  Moslem  from  the  devasta- 
tion of  Europe,  and  lit  the  flame  of  learning  at  hundreds  of 
university  shrines  throughout  the  ages,  have  not  lost  their 
force — and  we  believe  them  as  potent  to-day  as  ever  they  were 
— it  is  our  bounden  duty  above  all  others  not  to  ignore  the 
splendid  tradition  of  Catholicity  and  its  part  in  the  better- 
ment of  the  world.  Others  should  know  it,  but  we  are  bound 
to  do  so. 

We  have  had  in  the  past  and  in  the  present  down  even  to 
to-day  the  splendid  records  of  what  whole-souled  and  high- 
minded  Catholics  have  done  in  the  various  fields  of  political 
life,  humanitarian  service  and  common  welfare.  But  mere 
record  is  not  enough.  There  are  the  great  treasures  of 
thought,  philosophy  and  experience  for  the  past  twenty  cen- 
turies which  can  be  utilized  by  us  in  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lems of  to-day.  There  should  be  a  translation  and  adaptation 
to  our  present-day  needs,  of  the  formulas  which  healed  the 
nations  in  the  past.  Occasionally  some  professor  or  some 
earnest  student  of  the  past  discovers,  to  our  shame  and  con- 
fusion at  our  own  neglect,  the  method  and  the  practice  which 
the  Church  inculcated  in  some  temporarily  forgotten  age  and 
applies  it  to  the  solution  of  present-day  difficulties.  That 
should  be  preeminently  our  task,  and  it  is  one  of  the  many 
things  we  can  do  for  our  part  in  the  civic  progress  of  to-day. 

As  a  part  of  the  great  population  of  this  still  greater  land 
of  ours  we  should  lend  a  commensurate  aid  in  solving  the 
problems  which  vex  it  and  in  smoothing  the  ways  which  real 
progress  takes.  Not  merely  in  political  life  or  in  municipal 
stations  should  Catholics  be  found  ;  there  should  be  no  problem 
to  be  solved,  no  question  to  be  discussed,  no  remedy  sought 
for  existing  evils,  no  improvement  or  reform  in  governmental, 
moral  or  educational  lines  without  Catholics  being  represented 
on  the  body  or  association  engaged  in  such  work.  The  repre- 
sentation should  be  commensurate  with  our  importance  in  the 
population  of  our  country.     We  shall  not  have  grown  to  our 


2y6  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

full  stature  unless  that  be  so.  It  is  not  that  we  should  dream 
of  forcing  our  neighbors  to  call  us  into  council,  much  as  po- 
litical leaders  have  to  take  note  of  the  votes  they  can  com- 
mand, but  it  should  be  looked  to  that  we  shall  individually 
and  collectively  make  ourselves  of  such  importance  in  those 
lines  that  our  opinions  and  our  help  should  be  sought.  In 
this  way  we  shall  come  into  our  true  position  and  importance 
in  the  vital  questions  of  the  day,  and  do  our  ever-increasing 
part  in  civic  progress. 

There  is  much  to  do,  and  we  should  be  unwilling  to  remain 
inert  and  let  others  do  it.  Take  for  instance  the  huge  aggre- 
gations of  industrial  and  transportation  corporations  of  to-day. 
On  the  one  hand  they  have  become  so  great  that  they  are  a 
menace  to  our  government  and  institutions.  They  must  be 
curbed,  but  without  doing  more  harm  in  the  curbing  than  in 
allowing  them  to  be  without  supervision.  They  have  exer- 
cised so  much  reckless  power  and  oppression  in  their  en- 
deavor to  grow  greater  that  they  have  given  birth  to  the 
worst  side  of  SociaHsm  and  to  all  sorts  of  sweeping  doc- 
trines which  would  immediately  destroy  the  fabric  of  our 
institutions.  On  the  other  hand,  their  very  sweep  and  consoli- 
dation have  made  them  so  supreme  that  they  have  exalted  the 
rights  of  property  above  the  rights  of  man,  and  they  tend  to 
make  the  workman  a  slave  by  depriving  him  of  a  just  re- 
ward for  his  labor  and  of  the  opportunity  to  labor  in  other 
lines  than  the  ones  which  they  decree.  The  fruit  of  this  has 
been  armed  strikes,  misery  and  a  heritage  of  hate  and  dis- 
content. Its  side  result  has  been  the  increased  cost  of  living. 
It  is  a  subject  which  Catholics  can  study  in  the  clear  light  of 
the  gospel  with  the  intent  to  remedy  the  grosser  wrongs  and 
the  most  crying  abuses. 

Again,  take  city  government.  Any  analysis  of  the  figures 
of  our  chief  cities  shows  that  the  cost  of  governmental  admin- 
istration is  rising  year  by  year.  It  will  not  do  to  say  that  we 
have  more  improvements,  luxuries  and  benefits  than  our  fore- 
fathers ever  dreamed  of ;  for  most  of  these  have  been  bought 
by  long-term  bonds,  which  our  descendants  must  pay,  or  they 
are  farmed  out  to  rapacious  corporations  to  operate.  Yet  the 
daily  price  of  municipal  government  mounts  higher  and  higher. 
At  the  same  time  there  are  ugly  rumors  of  graft  and  pecula- 
tion, and  sometimes  even  demonstrated  proofs  of  it  in  speci- 


THE  CATHOLIC  PART  IN  CIVIC  PROGRESS     277 

fied  cases.  Here  is  where  the  man  with  the  CathoHc  con- 
science and  Catholic  teaching  can  find  an  ample  field  for  his 
study,  devotion  and  abilities. 

Our  public  schools  have  been  accused  of  being  inefficient. 
It  is  true  that  Catholics  have  long  since  said  that  they  were 
deficient,  in  that  they  omitted  to  teach  the  science  of  sciences, 
that  of  the  heart  and  soul,  but  they  have  not  accused  them  so 
far  of  being  ineffective  in  the  subjects  which  they  undertook 
to  teach.  Now,  however,  their  own  advocates,  their  own  par- 
tisans, say  that  the  results  attained  by  the  schools  are  not  what 
they  rightly  should  be,  and  that  they  represent  a  great  waste 
of  money  and  effort  in  their  present  ineffective  condition,  to 
say  nothing  of  hints  that  the  moral  and  civic  material  they  pro- 
duce of  any  grade  is  something  to  be  ashamed  of.  Here,  then, 
is  a  field  which  Catholics  may  inquire  into  and  seek  to  remedy, 
for  they  are  taxpayers,  employers  and  neighbors,  and  should 
seek  the  best  results  for  money  and  effort  expended. 

The  catalogue  might  be  made  longer,  but  space  forbids. 
There  is  abundant  work  in  every  line  surrounding  our  civic 
life,  and  we  should  equip  ourselves  for  it,  and  equip  ourselves 
so  fully  and  so  admirably  that  our  abilities  will  be  recognized. 
When  we  consider  what  we  have  already  done  in  the  century 
past,  how  it  stands  as  a  bulwark  for  hope  and  righteousness 
to-day  and  as  an  incentive  for  further  and  better  work  in  the 
future,  we  should  rejoice  and  be  glad. 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


ROMAN  CATHOLICISM 

An  Address  Delivered  Before  the  Mount  Morris  Baptist 

Church  Forum 

IT  is  with  much  diffidence  that  I  follow  the  gentlemen  who 
have  spoken  upon  the  various  Sundays  before  me.  My 
talk  is  the  harder  when  I  undertake  to  condense  into  the 
space  of  three-quarters  of  an  hour  the  history  and  development 
of  the  Catholic  Church  for  nineteen  centuries.  It  is  really  an 
impossible  task ;  and  if  aught  in  my  remarks  appears  as  an 
omission  or  curtailment,  it  is  because  I  can  give  but  an  out- 
line of  my  subject — simply  touch  upon  the  great  peaks  of  in- 
terest which  dominate  the  doctrines  and  conception  of  Catholi- 
cism. 

I  cannot  tell  you  how  much  I  appreciate  your  kind  invita- 
tion to  address  you,  and  the  generous  welcome  which  your  offi- 
cers have  extended  to  me.  If,  therefore,  I  may  be  so  fortu- 
nate and  sufficiently  clear  as  to  give  you  some  idea  of  the  sali- 
ent points  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church — for  I  can- 
not hope  to  make  more  than  an  outline  sketch — I  shall  be  very 
glad  indeed.  I  know  you  take  the  deepest  interest  in  the  out- 
look of  your  fellow-men  towards  God,  and  above  all  in  that 
of  your  fellow  American  citizens. 

We  are  Catholics  and  have  no  objection  to  being  called 
Roman  Catholics,  unless  it  be  invidiously  applied,  or  used  in 
the  sense  in  which  the  branch  theorists  of  Anglicanism  use  it. 
But  we  do  resent  the  names  sometimes  used,  such  as  Papist, 
Romanist  and  Romish,  for  the  very  simple  reason  that  they 
are  expressions  of  contempt  and  are  intended  to  wound.  Their 
use  is  getting  rarer  and  rarer,  and  all  generous-minded  Ameri- 
cans are  too  noble  to  fight  their  battles  with  adjectives  where 
facts  and  arguments  are  needed  instead.  We  are  Catholics 
because  we  are  of  the  one,  great  universal  church  of  Jesus 
Christ,  spread  throughout  all  the  ages  since  His  death  on  Cal- 

281 


282  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

vary  and  spread  throughout  the  world  in  every  nation,  land 
and  clime ;  and  we  are  Roman  because  we  follow  the  Roman 
Rite  or  form  of  worship  and  are  always  and  everywhere  united 
with  the  See  of  Rome  as  the  centre  of  union  and  of  authority. 
But,  as  the  word  Roman  is  not  always  coterminous  with  Cath- 
olic, I,  for  my  part,  shall  use  the  word  Catholic  throughout 
my  remarks. 

All  Catholics  are  not  of  the  Roman  Rite,  although  they  are 
a!l  in  communion  with  the  Holy  See  at  Rome.  We  have  some 
10,000,000  Oriental  Catholics — Greek  Catholics,  Armenian 
Catholics,  Maronite  Catholics  and  others — who  do  not  follow 
the  Roman  Rite  at  all,  but  follow  their  own  peculiar  forms  of 
worship,  yet  their  Faith  is  the  same.  As  an  example  at  our 
very  doors,  we  have  in  the  City  of  New  York,  not  only  Roman 
Catholics,  but  also  Greek  Catholics,  Armenian  Catholics  and 
Syrian  Catholics,  all  united  in  one  faith  but  differing  in  their 
rites  and  ceremonies  of  worship.  The  Greek  Orthodox 
Church  broke  away  from  the  unity  of  the  Church  nearly  nine 
hundred  years  ago,  but  all  the  Greeks  did  not  go  with  them. 
Many  remained  Catholics  and  many  more  returned  to  the  faith. 
In  America,  we  have  a  flourishing  Greek  Catholic  Church, 
spread  throughout  the  United  States  and  twice  as  large  as  the 
Greek  Orthodox  Church.  The  Greek  Orthodox  Church  is 
opposed  to  the  Greek  Catholic  Church,  although  they  both  use 
the  same  language  and  forms  of  worship.  But  the  Catholic 
Church,  whether  Greek  or  Roman  in  form  of  worship,  is  one 
in  faith  and  organization,  while  the  Greek  Orthodox  differs  in 
faith  and  is  separate  in  its  organization. 

If  we  were  asked  suddenly  to  point  to  the  one  body  which  is 
obviously  the  Church  of  Christ,  a  glance  throughout  the  world 
would  show  that  it  is  the  Catholic  Church,  for  that  looms 
larger  than  any  other  Christian  organization.  If  one  were 
asked  what  Church  has  given  the  greatest  inspiration  to  art, 
literature,  poetry  and  romance,  it  would  be  none  other  than 
the  Catholic  Church.  High  resolve,  heroic  deeds,  knighthood, 
chivalry,  renunciation,  prayer  and  sacrifice  have  their  root  in 
its  teachings,  in  which  you  will  find  the  sole  and  constant  fount 
of  inspiration  for  the  pen,  the  brush  or  the  chisel.  Catholicism 
is  woven  into  the  warp  and  the  woof  of  all  nations,  all  lan- 
guages and  all  centuries  since  the  advent  of  Christendom,  and 
has  become  part  of  the  nearest  and  dearest  to  our  hearts, 


ROMAN  CATHOLICISM 


283 


whether  we  believe  its  doctrines  or  no — just  as  the  word 
Christmas  brings  up  the  memories  of  Bethlehem  and  of  the 
Christ-Mass  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

Witness  her  history  in  the  great  battle  between  things  spir- 
itual and  things  material.  Against  what  church  body  do  the 
rulers  and  the  nations  of  the  whole  earth,  when  they  are  an- 
tagonistic to  Christianity,  first  rage  and  seek  to  destroy? 
What  church  has  just  suffered  the  entire  loss  of  all  its  tem- 
poral goods,  as  recently  in  France,  rather  than  abate  one  jot 
of  its  principles  of  unity  and  right  to  teach  its  faith  unham- 
pered? Turn  where  you  will,  whether  in  Europe,  Asia,  Af- 
rica or  America,  and  notice  what  one  particular  church  body 
is  everywhere  the  universal  target  of  objection  or  opposition 
among  those  who  minimize,  deny  or  flout  all  revelation  from 
God,  who  advance  theories  subversive  of  moral  or  civil  order, 
who  teach  doctrines  intended  to  extinguish  the  light  which 
the  Christian  religion  has  shed  upon  all  nations,  and  you  will 
find  by  a  comparison  that  that  body  alone  is  the  Catholic 
Church.  As  the  Church  which  Jesus  Christ  founded  could 
not  hope  to  escape  opposition  and  persecution  any  more  than 
its  Divine  Founder,  the  testimony  of  past  and  present  history 
cannot  but  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Catholic  Church 
alone  bears  the  marks  which  most  nearly  attest  her  as  the  rep- 
resentative Church  of  Christ  on  earth.  This  I  know  is  a 
negative  view  of  the  proposition,  and  I  will  not  assume  that 
it  proves  anything;  but  it  is  a  sufficiently  striking  view  to 
command  the  respectful  consideration  of  thinking  people  to 
the  teaching,  constitution  and  claims  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

If  I  were  asked  what  attitude  the 
Catholic  Church  most  insistently 
assumes  in  the  United  States,  and 
what  lies  closest  to  her  heart  of 
hearts,  I  could  not  find  a  more  fit- 
ting or  a  more  striking  answer  than 
in  the  accompanying  chart.  It  is 
taken  from  Bulletin  No.  103  of  the 
Census,  and  concerns  the  statistics 
of  religious  bodies  in  the  United 
States,  taken  in  the  year  1906.  You 
will  notice  that  it  deals  with  all  the  Protestant  churches  col- 
lectively, grouping  them  under  one  combined  heading.     They 


284  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

have  within  all  their  respective  folds  less  than  one-quar- 
ter (24.1  per  cent)  of  the  population  of  these  continental 
United  States.  The  Catholic  Church  has  less  than  fif- 
teen per  cent  (14.3  per  cent),  while  the  Jews,  Orthodox 
Greek  and  others  hold  but  7  per  mill  of  the  entire  popula- 
tion. All  of  these  together  make  up  but  39.1  per  cent  of 
the  population,  or  say,  about  32,940,000  souls.  This  leaves, 
out  of  a  population  of  84,250,000,  as  shown  by  that  census, 
some  51,310,000  persons  who  are  without  any  church  connec- 
tions whatever,  and  for  aught  that  we  know  have  little  or  no 
knowledge  of  their  Saviour  and  Redeemer,  or  of  any  God 
or  any  religion.  There  is  the  field — the  harvest  is  ripe — and 
you  and  I  can  put  forth  our  very  best  efforts  in  that  wide 
territory  of  homeless  souls  without  unnecessary  friction  or 
crossing  each  other's  paths  too  often.  It  is  that  wide  field, 
filled  with  human,  eager  souls,  varying  all  the  way  from  mild 
indifference  and  ignorance  to  virulent  animosity  to  Christ 
and  His  faith,  which  the  Catholic  Church  is  most  eager  to 
reach.  It  is  a  matter  of  the  deepest,  heartfelt  concern  to  us, 
and  it  ought  not  to  fail  to  be  of  importance  to  you. 

In  the  ancient  Creed,  the  test  or  description  of  the  Church 
founded  by  our  Lord  was,  "I  believe  in  one  holy  Catholic 
and  Apostolic  church."  That  is  but  a  duplication  of  St.  Paul's 
definition :  "Careful  to  keep  the  unity  of  the  Spirit  in  the 
bond  of  peace,  one  body  and  one  spirit,  as  you  are  called  in 
one  hope  of  your  calling;  one  Lord,  one  faith,  one  baptism" 
(Eph.  iv,  3-5),  and  this  is  but  an  amplification  of  Our  Lord's 
words :  "And  there  shall  be  one  fold  and  one  shepherd" 
(John  X,  16).  In  the  whole  world  to-day  there  is  but  one 
Christian  body  which  answers  to  the  test  of  unity.  Search 
throughout  the  world,  from  the  uttermost  bounds  of  the  East 
to  the  furtherest  confines  of  the  West,  and  you  will  find  but 
one  Christian  Church  which  is  everywhere  and,  being  every- 
where, is  united.  Wherever  you  find  the  Catholic  Church  in 
America,  it  is  united  in  one  body ;  it  teaches  one  faith ;  it 
acknowledges  one  baptism.  If  you  find  it  in  England,  Ireland, 
France,  Belgium,  Holland,  Scandinavia,  Germany,  Russia, 
Austria,  Italy,  Spain  or  Turkey,  or  in  Asia,  Africa  or  Oceania 
it  is  the  same.  It  everywhere  teaches  the  same  doctrine,  is 
everywhere  in  unity  and  in  unison.    Nowhere  else  in  the  wide 


ROMAN  CATHOLICISM  285 

world  can  one  discover  a  similar  phenomenon.  And  as  it  is 
to-day,  so  it  was  yesterday  and  throughout  the  centuries. 

Those  who  have  left  the  Church  have  always  cast  off  some- 
thing, either  of  doctrine  or  of  government.  They  have  failed, 
either  in  unity  or  organization,  or  in  unity  of  doctrine  and 
teaching.  But  all  through  the  pages  of  history,  back  to  fhe 
beginnings  of  the  Church,  the  note  of  unity  sounds  through 
the  ages  as  the  leit  motif  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  of  the 
Catholic  Church  alone.  In  the  Mass,  the  priest,  since  the 
first  ages  of  the  Church,  has  always  prayed :  "Thy  holy 
Catholic  Church,  which  do  Thou  vouchsafe  to  pacify,  guard, 
unite  and  govern  throughout  the  whole  world,"  and  that 
prayer  goes  up  unceasingly  every  day  from  her  altars  in 
every  land.  No  other  religion  of  ancient  or  modern  times, 
pagan,  monotheistic  (except,  perhaps,  the  venerable  Jewish 
Church,  when  its  priesthood  and  ahar  existed),  or  Christian, 
has  or  ever  had  that  mark  of  unity.  They  have  not  tried  to 
live  up  to  "One  body,  one  spirit,  one  Lord,  one  faith,  one 
baptism."  Even  now,  in  our  own  day,  when  most  of  us  are 
tolerant  of  one  another,  denominations  professing  the  same 
identical  faith  fail  to  get  together  in  corporate  union,  while 
those  that  have  but  a  hair's  breadth  between  them  stand  rig- 
idly aloof.  In  no  other  Christian  assembly  at  any  time  in 
the  pages  of  history  has  there  ever  been  such  a  wide  diversity 
of  peoples,  races,  divergent  political  views  and  national  jeal- 
ousies and  antipathies  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  so 
welded  together  and  so  knit  into  one  as  the  Catholic  Church 
exhibits.  It  alone,  among  all  the  Christian  faiths,  is  truly 
Catholic — truly  universal — spread  world-wide  in  every  land 
and  among  every  people,  no  matter  how  antagonistic  they 
be  one  to  another;  and  it  alone  is  one  in  the  faith  which  it 
teaches  and  in  the  government  which  it  obeys  in  spiritual 
things. 

Nor  does  its  Catholicity  and  unity  stop  here.  Its  faith 
teaches  that  the  Church,  the  Spouse  of  Christ,  is  one  now  and 
hereafter.  It  reaches  from  this  world  to  the  next;  and  the 
Church  Triumphant,  in  the  splendid  vision  and  glorious  com- 
munion with  the  Triune  God,  the  Church  Suffering  at  the  door 
of  beatific  rest  and  eternal  light  awaiting  entrance  into  the 
fullness  of  the  vision  and  glory  of  God,  and  the  Church  visi- 
ble and  Militant  battling  here  with  sin  on  earth,  is  all  one — 


286  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

the  one  and  the  same  Church.     We  and  they  are  knit  to- 
gether in  a  bond  of  union  so   strong  and  so  close  that  our 
prayers  help  those  who  have  not  yet  attained  to  the  vision 
and  rest  of  God,  while  that  great  "white-robed  army  of  mar- 
tyrs" and  the  other  saints  who  have  attained  to  everlasting 
happiness  help  us  poor  mortals   who  are  struggling  here  in 
this  valley  of  tears.     We  are  all  one,  the  blessed  in  Heaven, 
the  suffering  at  the  door  of  Heaven,  and  we  who  follow  their 
footsteps ;  and  our  brethren  who  have  gone  before  us  help  us 
with  their  prayers  at  the  Throne  of  Grace,  exactly  as  they 
would  have  done  were  they  now  on  earth  beside  us  in  our 
hours  of  struggle.    And  we  help  our  brethren  who  need  our 
prayers  as  we  would  were  they  kneeling  here  beside  us,  that 
they  may  the  sooner  be  with  the  blessed  brotherhood,  the 
Church    Triumphant,   before   the   Throne.       This    unity    and 
Catholicity   is    not    only    the   unity    that    reaches    around    the 
world,  the  Catholicity  that  spreads  through  all  ages,  all  races 
and  all  climes,  but  it  is  a  unity  and  Catholicity  that  reaches 
across  the  valley  of  death  and  carries  along  the  serried  ranks 
of  the  saints  clear  up  to  the  everlasting  Throne  of  God. 

The  Catholic  Church  teaches  absolutely  wholly  and  com- 
pletely the  doctrine  of  God  the  Trinity.  Father,  Son  and  Holy 
Ghost,  and  that  the  second  person  of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  God 
the  Son,  assumed  our  human  nature  and  was  made  flesh — 
being  at  the  same  time  true  man  and  true  God — for  our  re- 
demption and  salvation,  and  consummated  man's  redemption 
by  His  crucifixion  and  death  upon  Mount  Calvary.     It  con- 
fesses with  Saint  Peter  with  trumpet  tones  that  "there  is  no 
other  name  under  heaven  given  to  men,  whereby  we  may  be 
saved"   (Acts,  iv,  12).     The  Incarnation  of  Our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  central  point  of  Catholic  theology  and  doctrine. 
It  is  not  merely  a  feeble  assent  to  the  divinity  of  Our  Lord; 
it  is  the  emphatic  affirmation  upon  every  occasion,  at  every 
ceremony  and  form  of  worship,  nay.  throughout  the  hours  of 
every  day,  that  God  became  man  for  our  salvation  and  for 
our  lifting  up  to  supernatural  life.     Not  only  do  we  say  the 
prayer  which  Our  Lord  Himself  taught  us,  "Our  Father,  who 
art  in  heaven,"  but  we  say  in  commemoration  of  the  fact  that 
Our  Lord  God  became  man  the  words  with  which  He  sent  that 
message  to  the  tender  young  maiden  who  was  to  bear  Him 
into  this  world  and  the  very  first  salutation  of  that  fact  before 


ROMAN  CATHOLICISM  287 

He  was  even  born.  Like  the  Archangel  Gabriel  and  Saint 
Elizabeth,  we  say :  "Hail  Mary,  full  of  grace ;  the  Lord  is 
with  thee;  blessed  art  thou  among  women  (Luke,  i,  28)  and 
blessed  is  the  fruit  of  thy  womb,  Jesus"  (Luke,  i,  42),  in 
humble  acknowledgment  of  the  mystery  of  God  made  mani- 
fest in  the  flesh.  You  have  heard  of  the  Angelus — Millet's 
celebrated  picture  is  enough  to  impress  the  idea  upon  every 
one.  The  Angelus  is  the  prayer  ordained  by  the  Church  to 
be  said  three  times  a  day,  morning,  noon  and  night,  to  bring 
home  to  every  Christian  the  incarnation  of  our  Blessed  Re- 
deemer. The  Angelus,  which  is  almost  wholly  extracted  from 
the  Gospels,  is  said  as  follows : 

"The  Angel  of  the  Lord  declared  unto  Mary :  and  she  con- 
ceived by  the  Holy  Ghost.     Hail  Mary,  &c." 

"Behold  the  handmaid  of  the  Lord :  be  it  done  unto  me 
according  to  Thy  word.    Hail  Mary,  &c." 

"And  the  Word  was  made  flesh :  and  dwelt  amongst  us. 
Hail  Mary,  &c." 

And  then  this  prayer  follows : 

"Pour  forth,  we  beseech  Thee,  O  Lord,  Thy  grace  into  our 
hearts  that  we,  to  whom  the  incarnation  of  Christ  Thy  Son 
was  made  known  by  the  message  of  an  angel,  may  by  His 
passion  and  cross  be  brought  to  the  glory  of  His  resurrec- 
tion.    Through  the  same  Jesus  Christ  Our  Lord.     Amen." 

These  are  the  prayers  which  the  peasants  in  Millet's  pic- 
ture are  saying,  as  they  stand  with  bared  heads  at  even-tide. 

Therefore,  the  teaching  of  the  Church  is  not  merely  the 
divinity  of  Girist,  as  that  might  mean  merely  a  human  mask 
instead  of  a  real  humanity.  It  is  more  than  that — it  is  God 
Himself  taking  on  our  poor  humanity,  and  thereby  raising 
our  weak  human  nature  and  frailty  up  to  the  splendid  heights 
of  God  Himself.  He  became  our  brother  and  one  of  us, 
human  as  we  are,  in  all  except  sin,  and  His  mother  is  our 
mother,  even  as  He  commended  her  to  be  our  mother  to  the 
sole  apostle  at  the  foot  of  the  cross  when  He  was  dying; 
His  brethren  are  our  brethren ;  His  friends  are  our  friends — 
and  we,  without  abating  one  jot  or  tittle  of  our  worship,  love 
or  adoration  of  God  the  Son,  ask  His  mother  and  His  saints 
to  intercede  and  pray  for  us,  just  as  we  would  in  the  human 
family  of  whom  He  is  the  elder  brother  and  head,  turn  to 
them  to  help  us  in  our  straits  and  needs.    He  is  forever  God 


288  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

and  man,  for  in  His  ascension  and  glorious  reign  in  Heaven 
He  has  forever  raised  manhood  up  until  it  touches  the  hem 
of  divinity.  As  the  God-Man,  as  the  Word  made  Flesh,  He 
may  be  approached,  both  as  God  and  man,  exactly  as  if  He 
walked  the  earth  to-day.  As  the  priest  repeats  at  the  altar, 
as  he  lifts  his  hands  daily  in  commencing  the  great  sacrifice 
of  the  Mass : 

"O  God,  who  hast  wonderfully  framed  man's  exalted  na- 
ture and  still  more  wonderfully  restored  it,  grant  us  to  be^ 
come  partakers  of  His  Godhead  who  hath  vouchsafed  to  be- 
come partaker  of  our  manhood :  through  Our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  Thy  Son,  who  liveth  and  reigneth  with  Thee  in  unity 
with  the  Holy  Ghost,  one  God,  world  without  end." 

If,  therefore,  we  pray  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  or  to  the 
saints,  it  is  only  because  of  and  through  the  Incarnation  of 
Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  We  worship  Him,  we  acknowledge 
Him,  we  confess  Him  to  be  God.  our  Saviour  and  Redeemer ; 
but  we  love  Him,  approach  Him  and  cling  tenderly  to  Him 
as  man — as  our  brother — and  we  fervently  ask  all  His  near- 
est and  dearest  as  men  to  unite  with  our  petitions,  to  assist 
us  with  their  prayers,  to  have  the  whole  triumphant  Church 
in  Heaven  with  the  greatest  of  mankind  at  their  head  ring 
with  a  triumphant  human  unison  in  accord  with  our  petitions 
here  below.  It  is  the  humanity  of  Jesus  Christ  that  we  ac- 
knowledge and  glorify  when  we  ask  all  created  saved  hu- 
manity to  join  with  us  in  our  petitions  to  Him. 

The  Incarnation,  then,  is  the  centre  and  kernel  of  the  Catho- 
lic faith ;  all  else  is  a  consequence  and  corollary  of  it.  The 
passion  and  death  of  Our  Lord  is  His  drinking  the  bitter  wine 
of  humanity  to  the  very  dregs ;  it  is  the  continuation  and  con- 
summation of  His  becoming  man  for  our  salvation.  He  took 
upon  Himself  the  sins  of  the  world  as  the  last  experience  in 
taking  upon  Himself  the  flesh  and  soul  of  humanity,  and  He 
so  identified  Himself  with  our  human  life  from  the  cradle 
to  the  grave,  from  the  wedding  feast  of  Cana  to  that  ghastly 
climb  up  Calvary's  hill  with  death  at  its  summit.  He  is  ours 
from  a  human  standpoint,  as  well  as  from  a  divine  one,  inex- 
tricably and  inseparably  mingled  together  forever  as  God  and 
man,  to  be  loved  and  approached  from  either  side. 

The  Church  never  forgets  for  a  moment  the  sacrifice  upon 
Calvary.     Not  an  instant  of  prayer  is  she  without  its  remem- 


ROMAN  CATHOLICISM  289 

brance — the  Sign  of  the  Cross  is  the  beginning  and  ending 
of  all  of  them ;  she  puts  the  cross  constantly  before  us  upon 
her  churches,  books  and  vestments,  and  unceasingly  bids  us 
remember  the  crucified  Saviour.  In  commemoration  of  the 
day  upon  which  He  suffered  without  food  or  drink,  she  bids 
us  abstain  from  flesh  meat  on  that  day  in  each  week  as  some 
slight  denial  of  pleasure  to  ourselves  in  reminder  thereof. 
By  teaching  and  precept  the  Church  keeps  ever  before  us 
the  culminating  act  of  the  redemption  of  the  world. 

It  is  obvious  to  every  one  that  the  human  work  of  making 
known  the  Incarnation  and  teaching  of  Our  Lord  must  be 
entrusted  to  some  human  society  or  organization.  This  so- 
ciety or  organization,  if  it  is  really  to  carry  this  knowledge  to 
all  men,  in  all  ages  and  in  all  lands,  must  be  protected  against 
€rror  and  must  be  one  in  its  teaching.  If  it  be  not  protected 
against  error,  then  those  who  live  after  Christ  or  away  from 
the  Saviour's  voice  and  personal  presence  are  indeed  in  a  per- 
ilous condition,  since  they  have  no  sure  means  of  ascertaining 
what  His  teaching  was.  If  this  organization  is  not  one  in  its 
teaching,  then  the  faith  and  religion  of  Christ  become  little 
more  than  a  philosophical  school  of  thought  or  a  doctrine  of 
economics,  varying  with  each  person,  each  age  and  each  lo- 
cality. 

We  Catholics  declare  and  affirm  that  just  such  a  society 
was  established  to  effectively  carry  the  news  of  the  Incarna- 
tion and  teachings  of  Our  Lord  to  the  uttermost  ends  of  the 
earth  and  throughout  all  ages.  Our  Lord  gave  it  an  enduring 
charter:  "All  power  is  given  to  me  in  heaven  and  in  earth. 
Go,  therefore,  teach  ye  all  nations;  baptizing  them  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Teaching  them  to  observe  all  things  whatsoever  I  have  com- 
manded you :  and  behold,  I  am  with  you  all  days,  even  to  the 
consummation  of  the  world"  (Matt.,  xxviii,  18-20).  This  is 
what  we  mean  by  the  Catholic  Church.  Like  all  human  so- 
cieties, it  has  a  human  president,  or  chief,  and  Our  Lord  pro- 
vided that  chief  in  the  most  emphatic  manner.  I  do  not  wish 
to  take  up  time  quoting  texts,  but  the  subUme  declaration  of 
Christ  ought  to  be  held  in  mind : 

"Blessed  art  thou,  Simon  Bar-Jona :  .  .  .  And  I  say  to 
thee:  That  thou  art  Peter  (a  rock)  ;  and  upon  this  rock  I 
will  build  my  church,  and  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail 


290  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

against  it.  And  I  will  give  to  thee  the  keys  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven.  And  whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  upon  earth,  it 
shall  be  bound  also  in  heaven ;  and  whatsoever  thou  shalt 
loose  on  earth,  it  shall  be  loosed  also  in  heaven"  (Matt,  xvi^ 

17-19). 

It  is  a  declaration  of  position  and  power  never  vouchsafed 
to  any  other  Apostle.  Simon  the  fisherman  was  not  the  first 
of  the  Apostles  in  time,  for  Andrew  was  first  called ;  nor  the 
first  in  love,  for  John  was  the  well  beloved ;  nor  the  most 
steadfast,  for  he  denied  his  Master.  Yet  he  was  the  only 
Apostle  whose  name  was  changed  by  Our  Lord,  and  a  specific 
reason  given  for  doing  so.  Even  with  the  same  breath  in 
which  He  foretells  Peter's  denial.  Our  Lord  prophesies  that 
his  faith  will  fail  not  and  gives  him  charge  of  his  brethren. 
His  charge  over  his  brethren  and  the  Church  is  repeated  even 
after  the  resurrection.  As  Our  Lord  and  the  Holy  Ghost  were 
to  be  with  the  Church  until  the  end  of  the  world,  these  pre- 
rogatives descended  to  the  successors  in  the  teaching  body  of 
the  Church,  and  the  special  prerogatives  of  Peter  descended  to 
his  successors  in  office.  Otherwise  they  were  useless ;  and 
most  of  all  to  those  who  have  lived  since  the  days  of  the 
Apostles. 

Even  as  the  primitive  society  or  Church  sent  out  to  teach  all 
nations  had  Peter  at  its  head,  so  it  has  continued  ever  since. 
The  teaching  body  of  the  Church  has  deacons,  priests  and 
bishops,  and,  as  the  Chief  Bishop  of  them  all,  the  great  Bishop 
of  the  West,  the  Pope  of  Rome.  He  is  the  successor  of  Saint 
Peter,  as  testified  in  every  liturgy,  menology  and  church  his- 
tory from  the  earliest  times.  He  is  the  centre  and  focus  of 
Church  authority.  I  have  not  the  time  to  discuss  the  succes- 
sive history  and  organization  of  the  Church,  although  I  would 
gladly  do  so.  But  a  word  may  be  said  of  the  great  preroga- 
tive— the  flower  and  blossoms  of  the  promise  of  Christ,  that 
"the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against  it,  and  I  will  give 
unto  thee  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven" — the  infalli- 
bility of  the  Pope.  Infallibility  does  not  mean  that  the  Pope 
is  sinless,  or  incapable  of  sin ;  or  even,  to  use  an  extreme  illus- 
tration, that  he  is  able  to  write  a  book  on  theology  wholly  free 
from  error;  or  to  decide  without  mistake  upon  matters  of 
science,  history,  art  or  politics — it  is  confined  to  his  solemn 
official  judgments  on  matters  of  faith  and  morals  when  he  gives 


ROMAN  CATHOLICISM  291 

judgment  sitting  as  the  teacher  of  the  one,  universal  Church. 
The  Pope  cannot  add  to  the  deposit  of  faith  or  subtract  from 
it..  But  when  there  arises  among  the  teachers  of  the  Church 
a  controversy  which  alleges  on  the  one  hand  that  a  certain 
doctrine  is  of  the  faith,  and  on  the  other  hand  that  it  is  not 
of  the  faith,  the  decision  of  the  Pope,  sitting  in  his  capacity 
as  the  Chief  Bishop  and  Teacher  of  the  whole  Universal 
Church,  is  unalterable  and  conclusive.  The  word  "infalli- 
bility" means  that  his  decision  will  not  fail  to  be  a  correct  one, 
as  carrying  out  the  promise  of  Our  Lord :  "Simon,  Simon,  I 
have  prayed  for  thee  that  thy  faith  fail  not"  (Luke,  xxii,  31- 
32),  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  "the  Spirit  of 
truth,  who  will  teach  you  all  truth"  (John,  xvi,  13). 

The  Catholic  Church  comes  immediately  into  contact  with 
the  world  through  her  preaching  and  her  sacraments.    In  these 
she  knows  neither  race,  color  nor  civil  condition — all  sorts  and 
conditions  of  men  are  alike  at  her  shrines.     She  has  been 
called  the  Church  of  the  poor  and  the  ignorant;  well,  so  she 
is;  they  are  the  very  kind  of  persons  with  whom  Our  Lord 
associated.     She  has  been  reproached  for  cultivating  the  rich 
and  the  powerful;  but  He  also  was  the  honored  guest  and 
associate  of  rich  men  and  rulers.     She  has  as  many  learned 
men  as  any  other  organization  in  the  world,  but  their  learning 
is  for  the  supreme  end  of  saving  souls  and  not  for  earning 
distinction  as  erudite  scholars.     The  prince,  the  savant  and 
the  beggar  meet  together  at  her  altar  rail ;  one  can  find  it  here 
in  this  very  city,  or  in  any  of  the  stateliest  shrines  of  the  old 
world;  and  I  myself  have  taken  communion  in  a  resplendent 
church,  kneeling  at  the  altar  rail  between  a  negro  and  a  long- 
shoreman, and  in  a  magnificent  cathedral  a  Bedouin  of  the 
desert  has  entered  and  worshipped  beside  me.     Within  those 
hallowed  walls  we  were  all  equal  citizens  of  the  Kingdom  of 

God. 

Upon  this  great  body  of  worshippers  the  Church  brings  to 
bear  her  great  sources  of  dynamic  power — the  Sunday  Mass, 
with  its  accompanying  sermon  or  familiar  instruction,  the 
confessional  and  Holy  Communion.  These  are  the  main  bat- 
teries of  the  Church  in  her  warfare  against  sin.  They  are 
the  means  on  which  she  relies  to  build  up  strong  spiritual 
lives  in  her  children.  The  other  sacraments  are  all  needful, 
but  she  puts  these  at  the  forefront. 


292  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Every  Catholic  is  obliged  under  pain  of  serious  sin  to  be 
present  at  Mass  every  Sunday  unless  prevented  by  a  good 
reason.  So  it  is  that,  rain  or  shine,  in  heat  or  in  cold,  our 
churches  are  crowded  every  Sunday.  To  Catholics,  the  Mass, 
whether  celebrated  amid  all  the  imposing  solemnity  of  cathe- 
dral appurtenances,  or  whether  offered  in  an  unadorned 
chapel  of  a  backwoods  village,  is  the  supremest  act  of  wor- 
ship. We  believe  that  Christ  Himself  becomes  present  on  the 
altar  and  blesses  us  and  all  we  hold  dear.  There  before  the 
aUar  we  are  the  equals  of  the  multitude  that  daily  saw  Jesus 
when  He  walked  and  taught.  He  Himself  said  the  sacrament 
was  His  body  and  He  was  God,  the  Creator  of  all  things.  No 
man,  sincerely  believing  this  doctrine,  can  go  back  to  his  home 
and  the  duties  of  the  week  without  comfort,  courage  and 
high  resolve. 

Every  Sunday  there  is  at  the  low  Masses — so  called  because 
they  are  said  in  a  low  tone,  without  music,  usually — a  short 
familiar  instruction,  and  at  the  high  Masses  the  set  sermon. 
I  need  not  tell  you  that  the  Mass  is  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  with  all  the  ceremonies  and  usages  that  have 
come  down  to  us  from  the  earliest  times.  In  large  parishes 
there  are  from  six  to  eight  Masses  on  a  Sunday,  so  that  all 
the  members  of  the  families  may  be  accommodated.  Many 
times  is  the  church  filled,  and  at  each  Mass  the  Gospel  is  read 
and  expounded  and  applied  to  the  daily  life  of  the  people. 
Thus  throughout  the  year  the  Church  keeps  up  her  mission 
of  preaching  the  Gospel,  now  calmly  explaining  homely  duties, 
now  warning,  now  encouraging,  now  reproving,  now  pleading, 
now  thundering  against  abuses,  now  explaining  her  doctrine 
— always  conscious  of  her  responsibility  and  yearning  that 
Christ  may  be  in  the  hearts  of  her  people. 

Besides  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  and  the  ministry  of 
preaching,  the  Church  has  the  powerful  aids  of  confession 
and  Holy  Communion.  The  Church  teaches  that  the  sins  we 
commit  after  baptism  are  forgiven  through  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance ;  and  the  necessary  conditions  on  the  part  of  the  peni- 
tent for  receiving  absolution  are  contrition  and  confession. 
Now,  before  a  man  can  confess  his  sins,  he  must  examine  his 
conscience  carefully.  The  soul  is  forced  to  look  at  itself  in 
the  mirror  of  God's  law.  Words,  deeds,  conversations,  omis- 
sions and  that  interior  life  of  thought  and  will  which  is  hid- 


ROMAN  CATHOLICISM  293 

den  from  the  world  but  which  is  so  large  and  vital  a  part 
of  the  soul's  history,  all  must  stand  the  searchlight  of  God's 
commands  and  prohibitions.  This  serious  and  frequent  ex- 
amination of  one's  life  in  its  every  detail  and  motive  quickens 
the  action  of  conscience  and  strengthens  its  voice.  The  de- 
liberate hauling  of  one's  self  before  the  bar  of  eternal  law, 
the  steady  looking  at  one's  faults,  failures  and  transgressions, 
whether  against  God,  one's  neighbor  or  one's  own  interests, 
is  the  first  step  in  amendment. 

The  declaration  of  one's  sins  to  a  fellow-creature  is  not 
agreeable — it  is  not  intended  that  it  should  be ;  it  is  a  medicine 
for  our  pride,  and  medicine  as  a  rule  is  not  particularly  pala- 
table. But  this  declaration  of  sins  is  incumbent  upon  every 
one  in  the  Church  from  the  Pope  himself  down  to  the  hum- 
blest layman  in  any  walk  of  life.  Every  Catholic  knows,  too, 
that  so  absolute  and  sacred  is  the  secrecy  of  the  confessional, 
that  the  confessor  would  be  obliged  to  lay  down  his  life 
rather  than  reveal  what  is  committed  to  his  judgment  in  that 
tribunal.  And  that  tribunal  is  guarded  from  abuse  by  the 
severest  penalties  the  Church  can  decree. 

Besides  confession  of  sin,  every  Catholic  knows  that  as  a 
condition  for  obtaining  forgiveness  of  God,  he  must  have  true 
sorrow — otherwise  his  confession  were  worse  than  a  mockery. 
It  would  be  sacrilege,  and  he  would  have  added  to  his  burden 
of  sin,  instead  of  lightening  it.  And  that  sorrow  is  to  be  of 
no  vague  general  kind,  but  very  definite  and  practical.  It  in- 
cludes not  only  regret  and  repentance  for  the  past,  but  a  re- 
solve for  the  future.  It  means  the  definite  and  firm  resolution 
to  correct  the  sins  that  are  declared,  and  furthermore  to  keep 
from  whatever  might  prove  a  proximate  occasion  of  sin.  It 
is  this,  coupled  with  the  recitals  of  the  sins  to  the  priest,  which 
entitles  the  penitent  to  absolution.  But  it  does  not  end  here. 
There  is  then  the  satisfaction,  or  so-called  penance,  to  be  per- 
formed by  the  penitent.  If  he  has  stolen  he  must  make  resti- 
tution ;  if  he  has  slandered  he  must  repair  his  slanders,  etc. ; 
in  every  instance  he  must  perform  some  exercise  of  piety  in- 
tended to  call  to  his  mind  and  impress  on  his  conscience  the 
avoidance  of  temptation  and  sin. 

Confession  is  for  the  Catholic  the  preparation  for  Holy 
Communion.  Hence  his  earnestness  in  striving  to  make  as 
sincere,  humble  and  contrite  confession  as  possible.     For  he 


294  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

believes  that  in  Holy  Communion,  by  a  miracle  of  God's  love, 
he  comes  into  blessed  contact  with  the  very  physical  presence 
of  his  Saviour.  To  receive  Holy  Communion  with  serious  sin 
in  his  soul  would  be,  he  knows,  an  unspeakable  sacrilege.  ►It 
is  these  considerations,  as  a  corrective  of  sin  and  an  inspiration 
for  a  holy  life,  which  the  Church  offers  her  children  every 
day,  and  by  means  of  which  they  are  enabled  to  strive  to  over- 
come all  that  drags  them  down  from  manhood,  purity  and 
heaven. 

In  the  Sacrament  of  Matrimony,  the  Catholic  Church  has 
pronounced  the  holiest  blessings  upon  the  union  of  man  and 
wife.  The  union  of  man  and  woman  may  have  been  a  con- 
tract before — and  it  was  a  slippery,  evasive,  indefinable  con- 
tract, varying  with  caprice  from  divorce  after  divorce,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  unlimited  polygamy  on  the  other — but  Our  Lord 
made  it  a  sacrament  and  indissoluble.  The  Catholic  Church 
recognizes  no  divorce.  She  stands  for  the  family,  the  home 
and  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage  tie.  And  she  has  ever  stood 
for  that,  as  some  of  the  most  notable  events  on  the  pages  of 
history  have  shown.  And  she  will  unceasingly  cry  out  against 
any  legislation  or  any  teaching  which  tends  to  disintegrate  the 
home  and  disrupt  the  family  relation.  We  stand  shoulder  to 
shoulder  with  any  set  or  society  of  men — in  or  out  of  the 
Church,  if  they  mean  it — who  strive  to  promote  purity,  domes- 
tic happiness  and  moral  health,  whether  we  agree  with  them 
in  belief  or  not,  and  the  Catholic  Church  will  always  protect 
the  marriage  relation  and  keep  the  family  together  against  all 
comers.  It  is  the  only  human  foundation  upon  which  the 
Church  and  State  alike  can  build  together,  and  it  is  one  that 
needs  the  grace  of  God  to  keep  it  pure  and  stable. 

From  the  beginning  of  her  history  the  Church  has  enjoined 
upon  all  her  children  obedience  and  loyalty  to  the  lawfully 
constituted  authorities  in  their  respective  countries.  She 
teaches  that  as  the  Church  is  God's  representative  in  the  su- 
pernatural order  to  lead  men  to  a  supernatural  end  in  union 
with  Him,  so  the  State  is  God's  representative  in  the  natural 
order  to  bring  men  to  the  end  for  which  society  was  ordained 
— the  temporal  happiness  and  progress  of  the  race.  Disobedi- 
ence, then,  to  the  State  in  any  matter  which  is  within  the 
State's   competence   is    disobedience   to   God.     Obedience   to 


ROMAN  CATHOLICISM  295 

the  State  and  to  all  just  laws  is  loyalty  to  God  and  is  patriot- 
ism blessed  by  religion. 

In  the  natural  order  of  things  the  Catholic  Church  is  willing 
to.  walk  in  company  with  all  who  work  seriously  and  earnestly 
for  the  betterment,  purity  and  right-mindedness  of  all  people. 
In  charity,  benevolence  and  good  works  of   every  kind,  she 
will  meet  all  of  you  with  a  willing  heart  and  ready  hand.    But 
in  the  teaching  of  the  faith  handed  down  by  Jesus  Christ,  she 
affirms  that  she  alone  has  kept  the  whole  deposit  of  faith  in- 
tact and  the  continuity  and  unity  of  the  Church  along  with  it. 
While  she  therefore  recognizes  that  others  have  gone  out  from 
her  carrying  with  them  the  greater  truths  of  revelation  and  have 
faithfully  persevered  in  clinging  to  them,  she  cannot  regard 
them  as  safe  or  trusted  teachers,  and  cannot  allow  her  chil- 
dren to  violate  their  unity  of  the  faith  by  joining  in  worship 
with  those  not  of  the  fold.     She  bids  them  recognize  every 
noble,  good  and  worthy  thing  which  those  who  are  out  of  the 
fold  possess — nay,  in  many  instances  where  they  do  not  con- 
cern the  faith,  she  bids  us  imitate  and  adopt  them.     And  so 
in  the  battle  against  wrong  and  sin  and  foulness,  and  in  the 
desire  and  yearning  to  make  this  the  noblest  country  under 
the  sun,  we  may  join  hands  with  you  in  effecting  results,  al- 
though we  may  not  serve  even  temporarily  under  your  banner 
or  attend  your  martial  exercises.     But  we  may  do  something 
more;  we  may  pray  for  you  and  pray  with  you,  although 
apart  from  you.    In  the  last  analysis  the  Catholic  Church  rec- 
ognizes every  baptized  person  as  a  member,  and  nothing  but 
his  own  act,  in  wilfully  rejecting  the  light  afforded  him  by 
the  teaching  of  the  Church,  and  sinning  deliberately  against 
the  grace  of  God,  can  deprive  him  of  the  supernatural  end 
which  the  Incarnation  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  His  death 
on  the  Cross  prepared  for  them  that  believe  in  Him. 

I  cannot  forbear  concluding  this  brief  outline  of  the  work 
and  teaching  of  the  Catholic  Church  with  the  well-known  quo- 
tation from  Lord  Macaulay :  'There  was  not  and  there  is  not 
on  this  earth  a  work  of  human  policy  so  well  deserving  of 
examination  as  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  history  of 
that  Church  joins  together  the  two  great  ages  of  human  civili- 
zation. No  other  institution  is  left  standing  which  carries  the 
mind  back  to  the  times  when  the  smoke  of  sacrifice  rose  from 
the  Pantheon  and  when  the  camelopards  and  tigers  bounded 


296  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

in  the  Flavian  amphitheatre.  The  proudest  royal  houses  are 
but  of  yesterday  as  compared  with  the  line  of  the  Supreme 
Pontiffs.  *  *  *  The  Catholic  Church  is  still  sending  forth  to 
the  farthermost  ends  of  the  world  missionaries  as  zealous  as 
those  who  landed  in  Kent  with  Augustine,  and  it  is  still  con- 
fronting hostile  kings  and  governments  with  the  same  spirit 
with  which  she  confronted  Attila.  The  number  of  her  chil- 
dren is  greater  than  in  any  former  age.  Her  acquisitions  in 
the  new  world  have  more  than  compensated  for  what  she 
may  have  lost  in  the  old.  *  *  *  Nor  do  we  see  any  sign  which 
indicates  that  the  term  of  her  long  dominion  is  approaching. 
She  saw  the  commencement  of  all  governments  and  of  all  the 
ecclesiastical  establishments  which  now  exist  in  the  world ; 
and  we  feel  no  assurance  that  she  is  not  destined  to  see  the 
end  of  them  all.  She  was  great  and  respected  before  the 
Saxon  had  set  foot  in  Britain,  before  the  Frank  had  passed 
the  Rhine,  when  Grecian  eloquence  still  flourished  in  Antioch, 
when  idols  were  still  worshipped  in  the  temple  of  Mecca.  And 
she  will  still  exist  in  undiminished  vigor  when  some  traveller 
from  New  Zealand  shall,  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  solitude,  take 
his  stand  on  a  broken  arch  of  London  Bridge  to  sketch  the 
ruins  of  Saint  Paul's." 


THE  CHURCH  AND  ART 

FROM  the  time  the  .Church  emerged  from  the  cata- 
combs, she  has  sought  to  beautify  her  temples  and  her 
worship.  Even  there,  the  rude  frescoes  and  orna- 
ments found  by  archaeologists  amply  testify  that  the  perse- 
cuted Christians  found  occasion  to  decorate  and  symbolize 
their  daily  worship.  Not  only  do  these  paintings  and  quaint 
designs  tell  us  the  history  of  the  Church's  teaching,  but  they 
bear  eloquent  witness  to  the  use  of  artistic  means  employed  by 
the  Church  from  the  very  beginning  to  impress  the  believer 
with  the  fullness  and  glory  of  the  City  of  God. 

After  the  age  of  persecution,  when  the  Church  became  a 
publicly  recognized  institution,  then  assisted  and  afterwards 
often  dominated  by  the  State,  she  sought  for  the  greater  fruits 
of  artistic  development.  She  took  the  Roman  and  Greek  tem- 
ples and  law  courts,  adorned  them  in  a  manner  befitting  the 
nobler  Christian  worship,  and  wrought  for  herself  forms  of 
architecture  and  ornamentation  peculiarly  Christian.  How 
well  she  succeeded  the  vast  multitude  of  examples  of  Christian 
art  throughout  Europe  amply  testifies. 

The  central  point  of  all  Christian  worship  was  and  is  the 
bloodless  Sacrifice  of  the  Altar.  All  Christian  art  leads  up 
to  the  contemplation  of  that.  Even  in  the  beginning  Heaven 
itself  was  described  by  St.  John  in  the  semblance  of  an  altar 
with  the  lamb  enthroned  thereon,  and  the  saints  and  angels 
ministering  thereat,  with  golden  censers,  the  smoke  of  incense, 
and  the  prayers  of  the  saints.  The  great  writer  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse conceived  no  greater  symbolism  of  Heaven  than  that  of 
the  highest  act  of  Christian  worship. 

The  development  of  Christian  art  may  be  said  to  have  be- 
gun with  the  adornment  of  the  altar  and  sanctuary,  and  with 
everything  connected  with  the  Holy  Sacrifice.  In  the  East 
this  development  was  different  from  that  of  the  West.  The 
original  altar  was  left  untouched  by  the  Oriental  Church,  but 
the  screen  which  separated  the  altar  and  sanctuary  from  the 

297 


298  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

people  was  adorned  as  sumptuously  as  the  art  of  the  times  and 
the  wealth  of  the  worshippers  could  afford.  The  Easterners 
adorned  and  beautified  what  lay  in  front  of  the  altar,  while 
the  Western  Church  built  the  reredos  behind  it  and  filled  it 
with  carving  and  statues.  Only  the  choir  screens  and  altar 
screens  in  some  of  the  Western  churches  remain  now  as  traces 
of  the  Eastern  practices. 

Afterwards  came  the  great  glory  of  paintings,  mosaics  and 
statuary.  In  the  East  all  extension  of  art  was  checked  by 
the  outbreaks  of  the  Iconoclasts — the  Puritans  of  the  Eastern 
Roman  Empire — who  forbade  paintings  and  sculpture  in  the 
churches,  making  them  bare  and  desolate.  At  last  a  compro- 
mise was  effected  in  Constantinople,  and  icons,  or  pictures, 
consisting  of  paintings,  were  once  more  allowed,  while  sculp- 
ture was  forbidden,  and  so  remains  to  the  present  day  in  the 
Greek  Church.  The  day  when  art  was  once  more  allowed  in 
the  Christian  churches  of  the  East  is  still  triumphantly  cele- 
brated on  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent,  known  as  the  Sunday  of 
Orthodoxy. 

The  very  restraint  of  sculpture  in  the  Eastern  Church  and 
the  subsequent  inroads  of  the  Moslems,  who  allowed  no  art 
which  represented  the  human  face  or  figure,  arrested  the  de- 
velopment of  nearly  all  art  in  the  Oriental  countries  in  regard 
to  Christian  ideals.  True,  there  was  architecture  upon  the 
Byzantine  plan,  which  received  its  highest  development  when 
Justinian  built  the  temple  of  Saint  Sophia,  at  Constantinople, 
and  exclaimed :  'T  have  surpassed  thee,  O  Solomon !"  Even 
that  passed  over  to  the  Turk,  who  also  used  the  Greek  archi- 
tect to  build  him  mosques  after  the  same  wonderful  pattern. 

At  its  height  that  magnificent  ecclesiastical  architecture  left 
us  models  which  all  ages  must  hereafter  study.  In  the  bright 
skies  of  Constantinople,  Greece  and  Italy — for  nearly  until 
the  thirteenth  century  Italy  was  almost  half  Greek — the  win- 
dow space  of  the  churches  was  a  minimum  and  the  art  of  the 
painter  and  colorist  filled  up  the  blank  walls. 

Yet  all  wall  painting  was  felt  to  be  ephemeral,  something 
that  must  soon  pass  away.  Then  came  the  wonderful  art  of 
mosaic,  an  art  which  had  been  used  sparingly  by  the  ancients, 
but  was  used  lavishly  by  the  builders  of  the  Christian 
churches.  The  magnificent  churches  of  Ravenna — the  old 
Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  a  province  of  Constantinople,  situated 


THE  CHURCH  AND  ART  299 

in  the  heart  of  Italy— St.  Apollinare-in-Classe,  San  Vitale,  and 
St.  Apollinare  Nuova,  are  the  glories  of  the  sixth  century, 
while  the  older  churches  of  Rome  and  Sicily  and  St.  Mark's 
of  Venice  show  painting  and  mosaic  in  all  its  greatness. 

The  architecture  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches  of  that 
and  the  subsequent  periods  is  better  to  be  appreciated  from 
the  interior  than  from  without.  The  glory  of  mosaic  grows 
upon  one  who  studies  St.  Mark's  Cathedral  in  Venice,  the 
churches  of  Santa  Pudenziana,  and  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore  in 
Rome,  and  the  Palatine  Chapel  in  Palermo  and  the  Cathedral 
in  Monreale  in  Sicily.  There  one  can  see  what  a  magnificent 
mantle  of  art  it  spreads  over  the  whole  church  building.  One 
may  trace  it  from  the  fifth  century  until  the  nineteenth;  as 
well  as  in  the  magnificent  reproductions  of  modem  paintings 
in  the  mosaics  of  the  Vatican  and  St.  Peter's.  For  a  jewel,  a 
flashing  gem  of  almost  modern  mosaic  art,  I  have  never  seen 
anything  to  surpass  the  Palatine  Chapel  in  Palermo,  for  the 
entire  chapel,  from  floor  to  ceiling,  is  one  glowing  mass  of 
beauty,  telling  the  story  of  a  saint  and  a  gospel  at  every  turn. 

As  the  Western  Church  continued  her  conquest  of  heathen 
and  barbarian  Europe,  she  evolved  a  new  order  of  art,  that 
of  architecture  of  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  form.  The 
building  forms  of  Italy  and  Greece  (where  the  sun  shone 
gloriously  and  vividly)  made  too  dark  the  buildings  destined 
for  worship  in  the  more  northern  climes.  There  more  light 
was  needed  in  the  interior.  Then  came  airier  structures,  with 
pinnacles  and  spires,  great  wide  window  spaces  and  huge  por- 
tals, soaring  roofs  and  flying  buttresses,  a  lace  work  of  mar- 
ble and  light  stone.  One  has  to  pause  with  amazement  at  the 
industry  and  art  which  covered  all  the  North  of  Europe,  and 
the  Isles  of  England,  Ireland  and  Scotland  with  these  mag- 
nificent specimens  of  art,  which  we  can  do  little  better  than 
copy.  The  cutting  of  huge  windows  in  the  Gothic  cathedral 
made  wall  painting  and  mosaic  well-nigh  impossible,  but  it  in 
turn  gave  birth  to  another  form  of  art.  These  huge  openings 
were  filled  with  glass,  upon  which  designs  in  colors  were  in- 
troduced, and  thus  stained  glass  as  an  ornament  in  churches 
and  a  replacement  of  mosaic  among  the  Northern  nations  came 
into  being.  The  Church  claimed  them  all  for  her  own  and 
made  them  tell  to  the  worshippers  the  story  of  her  mission 
and  message  to  the  world. 


300  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

What  shall  I  say  of  painting,  whether  that  upon  the  great 
wall  spaces,  in  fresco,  or  that  upon  canvas  which  is  not  so 
enduring?  Painting  in  modern  design  came  later  than  these 
other  arts  and  has  been  developed  perhaps  more  than  any. 
And  the  Church  has,  ever  since  the  first  master  touched  his 
inspired  brush,  been  a  consistent  patron  of  the  best  that  man 
can  do  to  tell  the  story  of  the  gospel,  the  saint  and  the  martyr. 
The  story  of  Italian  art  would  take  long  to  recite  here.  In 
those  days  there  were  giants,  indeed,  such  as  Michelangelo, 
the  beloved  Michelangelo  of  the  Florentines,  a  painter,  a  sculp- 
tor, an  architect,  a  military  captain  and  a  poet,  all  in  one. 
The  Church  claimed  and  fostered  the  best  of  everything  that 
these  masters  produced.  And  that  youthful  genius,  Raphael 
of  Urbino,  who  conquered  the  world  of  architecture  and  paint- 
ing, dying  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven,  left  behind  him  in  church 
and  palace  more  than  many  masters  accomplish  in  a  long  life. 

Nor  has  the  Church  ever  ceased  to  evoke  and  inspire  the 
best  efforts  of  hosts  of  painters  to  tell  her  wondrous  story 
and  the  conquest  of  the  world  for  Christ.  In  many  lands, 
among  people  of  every  race  and  tongue,  the  sacred  story,  the 
saint,  the  hero  and  the  champion  of  God  in  every  guise  have 
been  pictured  by  the  deftest  and  the  most  creative  hands  the 
world  has  ever  known.  The  art  of  painting,  more  than  that 
of  other  arts,  speaks  directly  to  the  heart,  is  more  easily  un- 
derstood, and  preaches  almost  as  eloquently  in  the  churches 
as  the  pulpit  itself.  The  Church  has  used  and  will  always  use 
it  in  greater  profusion  than  any  other  one  of  the  allied  arts. 

But  the  Church  has  not  contented  herself  with  these  arts 
alone.  The  art  of  sculpture,  both  creative  and  decorative,  was 
at  all  times  lavishly  employed.  Those  who  have  studied 
Gothic  cathedrals  are  amazed  at  the  wealth  of  detail  and 
thought  in  every  part.  We  have  our  machine-made  buildings, 
nowadays,  but  in  the  Middle  Ages  every  figure,  every  face,  was 
unique  and  characteristic,  with  a  personality  of  its  own.  Con- 
sider the  Cathedral  of  Milan,  with  its  2,800  statues,  each  one 
representing  a  distinct  personality !  The  English  cathedrals, 
where  they  are  intact,  the  French,  German  and  Austrian 
churches  show  a  wealth  of  sculpture  in  every  part.  Even  if 
other  adornment  were  omitted,  the  wealth  of  sculpture  and 
bas-relief  is  so  lavish  and  great  that  we  wonder  at  the  genius 
that  produced  it  all. 


THE  CHURCH  AND  ART  301 

Nor  did  this  Christian  art  stop  with  carved  stone  and 
moulded  brass.  Every  bit  of  wood  that  entered  into  the  sanc- 
tuary was  carved  and  shaped  with  an  art  and  a  loving  skill 
almost  akin  to  worship.  Witness  the  wonderful  choir  stalls, 
rood  screens,  organ  frontals,  and  episcopal  thrones  and  bal- 
dacchini,  found  in  the  cathedrals  and  parish  churches.  In 
its  palmiest  days,  the  art  patronage  of  the  Church  was  so  great 
that  even  the  village  chapel  always  had  its  artificer  to  adorn  it. 

The  blacksmith  also  came  in  for  his  share  of  artistic  pro- 
duction. In  Spain  and  Portugal  and  in  Northern  Italy  the 
blacksmith  was  an  artist.  The  magnificent  hammered  iron 
altar  and  choir  screens  and  hammered  brass  and  bronze,  in  a 
thousand  entrancing  shapes,  testify  to  his  artistic  power.  It 
is  only  of  very  recent  years  that  we  have  awakened  to  the 
artistic  force  and  power  of  the  artificer  in  iron  and  brass,  as 
an  adjunct  to  the  architecture  and  sculpture  of  the  Church. 

Even  in  the  far-off  lands  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  wherever 
cathedrals  were  built,  whether  of  brick,  in  default  of  stone,  as 
at  Upsala,  or  in  the  beautiful  slender  columns  of  gray  stone,  as 
at  Trondhjem,  the  church  devised  for  its  humbler  structures 
another  form  of  art,  the  log  church.  Any  one  who  has  seen  in 
Norway  and  Sweden  the  carved  logs,  forming  parts  of  the 
church,  the  sanctuary  and  sometimes  the  altar,  and  the  quaint 
beauty  of  the  belfries  and  spires  of  logs  for  the  old  Swedish 
churches,  can  realize  how  in  a  land  where  wood  was  plentiful 
and  stone  was  costly  such  artistic  results  were  achieved  from 
materials  which  here  in  America  in  our  day  are  made  simply 
repulsive.  A  stroll  through  Oscarshall,  at  Christiania,  or  the 
Skandsen,  at  Stockholm,  will  make  one  realize  it. 

But  the  Church  laid  the  pen  and  the  needle  under  artistic 
contribution  also.  It  ran  the  gamut  of  art,  and  nothing  was 
too  lowly  or  too  insignificant  to  contribute  to  the  beauty  of  the 
House  of  God.  Illumination  of  the  beautiful  manuscripts  of 
the  Middle  Ages  is  essentially  a  church  art.  Monks  who  wrote 
and  copied  primarily  to  extend  knowledge  and  the  teachings 
of  the  Church  began  to  develop  after  their  manner  into  con- 
summate artists,  who  made  the  written  page  carry,  embla- 
zoned on  it,  as  great  works  as  ever  the  master-painters  limned 
on  the  walls  of  the  church,  or  the  glassworker  wrought  in  the 
windows  of  the  cathedral.  The  priest  at  the  altar  read  the 
words  of  the  Mass  from  a  treasury  of  art  almost  as  great  as 


302  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

the  worshipper  in  the  nave  saw  around  him.  And,  with  our 
art  knowledge  of  to-day,  with  the  experience  and  results  of 
centuries  behind  us,  we  cannot  excel  those  wonderful  minia- 
tures and  illuminations  of  the  past,  but  are  fain,  as  in  so  many 
other  regards,  merely  to  copy  them. 

The  needle,  too,  contributed  its  share.  From  the  earliest 
times  the  worship  of  the  emancipated  Christian  Church  was 
performed  in  the  noblest  and  best  apparel  the  wealth  and  piety 
of  the  worshippers  could  bestow.  If  earthly  courtiers  ought 
to  approach  their  sovereigns  clad  in  their  best,  why,  then, 
should  not  the  King  of  kings  be  approached  and  served  with 
magnificence?  When  the  courtly  apparel  of  Roman  days  be- 
came ancient  and  unfamiliar,  it  was  peculiarly  consecrated  to 
the  service  of  the  Church  and  was  adorned  as  fully  and  mag- 
nificently as  possible.  Thus  the  Church  consecrated  em- 
broidery and  afterwards  lacework  to  its  service.  Art  work  of 
the  noblest  kind  is  found  in  the  decoration  and  ornamenta- 
tion of  chasubles,  stoles,  capes,  mitres  and  the  coverings  of  the 
sacred  vessels  and  the  altar.  In  figure  and  color,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  beauty  of  the  design,  these  vestments  vie  with  illu- 
mination and  painting,  differing  from  it  only  in  degree.  The 
brilliant,  filmy  surplices  and  albs  and  other  ecclesiastical  vest- 
ments brought  forth  the  finest  examples  of  the  lacemaker's 
art  in  the  service  of  the  Church. 

The  jeweler's  art  was  always  sought  after  and  fostered  by 
the  Church.  The  sacred  vessels  in  which  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment reposed,  and  those  which  were  used  on  the  altar,  were 
always  highly  adorned  and  made  of  the  most  precious  metals. 
The  arts  which  wrought  in  gold  and  silver  and  precious  stones 
had  their  finest  outlet  here ;  for  no  reverent  idea  of  sacred 
adornment  which  made  for  artistic  worth  and  embellishment 
was  overlooked.  And  in  a  less  degree  the  working  out  of 
crosses,  croziers,  sanctuary  lamps  and  all  the  precious  orna- 
ments connected  with  the  altar  and  its  ministry  commanded 
the  highest  artistic  skill  of  the  worker  in  gold,  silver  and 
precious  stones.  The  whole  history  of  the  Church  glows  with 
the  splendor  and  brilliancy  of  this  form  of  art,  so  intimately 
connected  with  its  sacred  mysteries. 

Thus  the  Church  has  laid  all  forms  of  art  under  contribu- 
tion. It  has  been  as  universal  almost  in  its  promotion  of  art, 
as  it  has  been  in  the  spread  and  the  teaching  of  the  Gospel 


THE  CHURCH  AND  ART  303 

throughout  the  world.  It  has  sought  to  make  the  art  impulse 
and  the  love  of  the  beautiful  in  man  the  stepping-stone  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  and  the  golden  thread 
which  should  bind  his  emotions  to  the  service  of  God.  We 
are  all  in  the  greater  sense  "children  of  God,"  and  the  things 
of  this  world  which  in  beauty,  form  and  color,  appeal  to  us 
children  through  our  senses,  rather  than  through  our  intel- 
lects, have  been  utilized  by  the  Church  now  and  in  all  ages  to 
bring  us  more  closely  in  touch  with  our  Heavenly  Father. 

The  Church  has  been  a  constant  and  unceasing  patron  of 
art,  perhaps  in  a  sense  the  only  real  patron.  Individuals  have 
been  fickle  and  fanciful ;  governments  have  been  changeful 
and  utilitarian ;  both  have  been  at  times  almost  inimical  to 
art,  and  repellent  to  the  artist.  But  the  Church  throughout 
its  entire  history  has  encouraged  and  fostered  art  in  every 
age,  and  has  always  used  the  creative  arts  to  illustrate  and 
exemplify  its  mission  and  to  leave  enduring  memorials  of  its 
activity  on  earth.  Its  patronage  of  art,  therefore,  has  never 
been  ephemeral,  or  bounded  by  current  fashion  or  caprice, 
but  has  demanded  and  always  will  demand  the  highest  crea- 
tive effort  in  whatsoever  branch  the  artist  may  follow,  or  of 
whatsoever  achievement  he  may  be  capable.  The  demand  for 
the  artist's  service  and  devotion  to  the  mission  of  the  Church 
is  a  continuing  one,  and  will,  as  the  Church  itself  has  done, 
outlive  the  transitory  tastes  of  a  current  age. 

The  Church  in  America,  in  these  United  States,  has  just 
entered  triumphantly  upon  the  second  century  of  its  work. 
By  earnest  endeavor  and  ceaseless  economy,  it  has  reared 
churches,  schools  and  institutions  on  every  hand,  and  now 
stands  clothed  in  the  temporal  garments  of  contemporary  use- 
fulness. Its  members  have  become  well  supplied  with  the 
goods  of  this  world,  even  if  not  actually  wealthy.  The  age 
of  struggle  and  missionary  preparation  is  rapidly  passing.  It 
therefore  behooves  the  Church  to  clothe  itself  here  in  the  new 
world,  anew,  with  its  traditional  splendor  for  the  glory  of  God. 
Its  temples  need  no  longer  be  bare  and  no  longer  may  medi- 
ocre utilitarianism  reign  supreme.  An  intelligent  appreciation 
of  the  force  and  power  of  art  rightly  directed  for  the  harmony, 
beauty  and  elevation  of  the  worship  of  God  will  serve  effec- 
tually as  an  auxiliary  to  the  Church  in  its  relations  to  mankind 
in  this  age,  and  as  a  stimulus  and  incitement  to  bring  forth 


304  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

the  very  best  eflforts  to  adorn  and  make  worthy  the  temple 
which  is  the  abode  of  the  King  of  kings.  No  longer  should 
we,  while  enjoying  all  around  us  the  best  that  our  culture  can 
afford,  employ  in  our  worship  merely  those  things  which  our 
emotions  and  our  artistic  sensibilities  tell  us  are  unworthy  of 
the  great  object  of  worship.  It  is  much  like  keeping  the  best 
for  ourselves  and  giving  the  second  best  to  the  Church. 

We  therefore  have  reached  a  point  in  our  history  where  we 
can  seriously  consider  art  and  the  artist  in  the  development  of 
our  public  worship.  It  is  our  duty  to  do  so,  unless  we  are 
willing  to  fall  far  below  the  standard  of  our  forefathers.  If 
they  had  beautiful  churches,  so  should  we  have  them.  If 
they  had  noble  and  imposing  adornments  of  God's  house,  we 
should  have  them  also.  As  the  Church  has  increased  in  the 
past  century,  on  its  material  and  spiritual  sides  among  the 
people  of  this  diocese  and  land,  so  may  it  also  increase  in  the 
coming  century  in  its  artistic  growth  and  in  its  appeal  to  the 
beautiful  and  glorious  in  the  worship  of  Almighty  God. 


CARDINAL  RAPHAEL  MERRY  DEL  VAL 

FOR  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  CathoUc  Church 
the  Holy  See  has  a  Secretary  of  State  whose  mother- 
tongue  is  English,  and  who  is  acquainted  with  English 
manners,  literature  and  modes  of  thought.  It  is  this  fact 
which  annoys  certain  writers  against  the  Holy  See,  for  the 
comparatively  young  adviser  of  the  Pope  is  able  to  take  them 
at  first-hand — not  as  his  predecessors  did,  by  means  of  trans- 
lation— and  to  judge  them  from  an  intimate  personal  and  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  Anglo-Saxon  affairs.  He  is  a  man  to 
whom  the  equipment  of  the  modern  world  is  familiar;  the 
telegraph,  telephone,  stenographer  and  typewriter  are  as  freely 
used  by  him  as  by  the  modern  business  man. 

Raphael  Merry  del  Val  was  born  at  No.  33  Gloucester  Place, 
Portman  Square,  London,  on  October  10,  1865,  and  was  the 
third  son  of  Marquis  Raphael  Merry  del  Val,  then  Secretary 
to  the  Spanish  Embassy  at  the  Court  of  St.  James.  His 
father  is  descended  from  a  branch  of  the  Merry  family  of 
Waterford,  Ireland,  which  in  time  of  persecution  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century  had  to  seek  a  home  in  Spain.  His  mother, 
the  Condesa  Zulueta,  only  daughter  of  Don  Pedro  Jose  de 
Zulueta,  Count  de  Torre  Diaz,  was  educated  in  England  and 
lived  there  until  her  marriage.  Her  mother  (and  his  grand- 
mother) was  a  Miss  Sophie  Willcocks,  eldest  daughter  of 
Brodie  McGhie  Willcocks,  formerly  member  of  Parliament 
for  Southampton.  Thus  the  future  cardinal  came  of  a  strong 
mixture  of  Irish  and  English  blood,  in  addition  to  having 
been  born  in  England.  His  brother.  Count  Merry  del  Val,  is 
even  now  in  the  Spanish  diplomatic  service,  and  has  been  of 
great  assistance  in  settling  the  intricate  Morocco  question. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  young  Merry  del  Val  was  al- 
most wholly  English  in  his  mother-tongue  and  upbringing. 
His  first  schooling  was  at  Baylis  House,  near  Slough,  an  excel- 
lent school,  kept  by  the  well-known  Butt  family.  He  was  a 
jolly,  good-natured  lad,  and  earned  the  schoolboy  nickname 

305 


3o6  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

of  the  "Merry  Devil."    When  he  was  between  ten  and  eleven 
years  old  his  father  was  promoted  to  Spanish  Ambassador  to 
Belgium,  and  he  was  then  transferred  to  schools  in  Namur 
and  Brussels,  where  he  acquired  a  thorough  command  of  the 
French  language.    He  finished  his  course  at  the  College  de  St. 
Michel  in  Brussels,  and  before  he  was  eighteen  returned  to 
England  to   enter  the   Catholic  College  of   St.   Cuthbert,   at 
Ushaw,  near  Durham,  where  he  finished  his  studies  in  Philos- 
ophy, in  October,  1885.    It  is  said  that  at  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  not  only  knew  as  much  Greek  and  Latin  as  most  professors 
of  those  ancient  languages,  but  he  was  amazingly  well  versed 
in  theology  and   Church   history  and  the   current  affairs   of 
European  countries,  and  could  write  and  converse  in  English, 
Spanish,  French,  Italian  and  German.    At  the  age  of  twenty, 
when  he  graduated  from  Ushaw,  it  is  said  that  he  spoke  those 
languages  without  an  accent,  and  had  a  tolerable  knowledge 
of  several  others  besides.    In  his  amusements  he  developed  into 
a  good  bicycHst,  a  fine  swimmer  and  a  clever  rifle  shot;  was 
fond  of  riding  and  was  a  good  dancer.    When  he  determined 
to  become  a  priest  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  his  mother  used 
to  laughingly  warn  him  that  his  dancing  days  were  over. 

After  his  graduation  his  father  secured  for  him  the  position 
of  private  tutor  to  the  present  King  Alfonso  XIII  of  Spain. 
It  was  probably  his  influence  which  inclined  the  future  King's 
ideas  towards  things  English,  and  which  inclination  eventu- 
ated in  the  royal  marriage  to  the  English  princess  who  is  now 
Oueen  Victoria  of  Spain.  When  his  father  was  appointed 
Spanish  Ambassador  to  the  Holy  See,  his  son  accompanied 
him  to  Rome  and  entered  the  Gregorian  University  to  pursue 
his  studies  for  the  priesthood.  It  is  said  that  at  one  time  he 
had  a  desire  to  enter  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  to  serve  at  one 
of  their  missions  among  the  poor  in  the  East  End  of  London, 
just  as  Prince  MaximiHan  of  Saxony  did  after  being  ordained 
priest,  but  his  confessor  dissuaded  him,  and  Pope  Leo  XIII, 
who  was  a  great  judge  of  men,  further  persuaded  him  to  enter 
the  Accademia  dei  Nobili  Ecclesiastici,  where  in  addition  to 
the  other  University  studies,  ecclesiastical  diplomacy,  political 
economy  and  international  law  are  taught.  Here  he  acquitted 
himself  with  even  more  credit,  while  he  obtained  high  de- 
grees in  philosophy,  theology  and  canon  law. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-four  he  was  ordained  a  priest  for  the 


CARDINAL  RAPHAEL  MERRY  DEL  VAL      307 

Archdiocese  of  Westminster,  London,  thus  identifying  him- 
self with  the  Metropolitan  See  of  the  English  Church.  But 
even  before  his  ordination  he  had  been  selected  for  important 
duties.  In  1887,  he  was  appointed  a  Cameriere  Segreto 
(Privy  Chamberlain),  and  as  such  he  accompanied  Mgr.  Ruffo 
Scilla  in  1887,  to  represent  the  Holy  See  at  the  Jubilee  of 
Queen  Victoria.  A  few  months  later,  with  Mgr.  Galimberti, 
he  attended  the  funeral  of  Emperor  William  I  of  Germany, 
as  the  representative  of  the  Pope.  In  1888  he  also  represented 
the  Holy  See  upon  the  occasion  of  the  Jubilee  of  Emperor 
Francis  Joseph  of  Austria.  All  these  honors  came  to  him 
before  he  was  even  ordained  deacon  or  priest. 

In  1892  he  was  made  Cameriere  Segreto  Participante,  that 
is,  a  Privy  Chamberlain  in  active  service,  which  entailed  his 
taking  up  his  residence  within  the  Vatican  itself,  with  an 
apartment  in  close  proximity  to  that  of  the  Holy  Father,  a 
member  of  whose  official  family  he  thus  became.  In  1896  he 
was  appointed  to  the  onerous  and  responsible  position  of 
Secretary  to  the  Special  Commission  appointed  by  the  Holy 
Father  to  examine  into  and  determine  the  facts  as  to  the  va- 
lidity of  the  ordinations  and  orders  in  the  Established  Church 
of  England.  This  may  be  called  his  first  large  and  responsi- 
ble appointment,  and  was  no  doubt  due  in  a  great  degree  to 
his  familiarity  with  the  English  language  and  his  knowledge 
of  affairs  in  England.  The  Commissioners  were  unanimous 
in  their  appreciation  of  the  able  manner  in  which  he  dis- 
charged his  duties.  His  minutes,  drawing  together  and  digest- 
ing, as  they  did,  the  daily  discussions  and  memoranda  of  the 
commission,  were  regarded  as  extraordinary  in  their  faithful- 
ness, accuracy  and  lucidity. 

In  1897,  when  Canada  was  much  disturbed  over  the  burning 
question  of  the  schools  in  Manitoba,  where  both  the  question 
of  religious  teaching  and  the  use  of  the  French  language  were 
involved,  Merry  del  Val  was  selected  by  Pope  Leo  XIII  as 
Apostolic  Delegate,  to  visit  and  study  the  questions  on  the 
spot,  and  to  report  to  the  Holy  See  upon  the  matter.  It  was 
a  question  which  threatened  to  interfere  with  the  usefulness 
of  the  Church  in  Western  Canada  and  required  the  most  deli- 
cate handling.  But  his  visit  to  Canada  was  a  noteworthy  suc- 
cess and  marked  an  epoch  in  the  religious  history  of  the  Do- 
minion.   It  was  only  to  be  expected  that  he  would  be  well  re- 


o 


08  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 


ceived  in  the  Catholic  province  of  Quebec,  but  the  singular 
personal  enthusiasm  which  he  kindled  everywhere  turned  his 
visit  into  a  triumph.  To  the  English-speaking  population  he 
appeared  the  cultured  Englishman,  while  the  French  found 
that  he  spoke  their  language  quite  as  well  as  themselves.  At 
the  Laval  University  and  the  great  seminaries  he  sometimes 
astonished  his  audiences  when  orations  had  been  addressed  to 
him  in  Latin,  by  at  once  replying  extemporaneously  in  the 
same  tongue  with  the  utmost  fluency.  His  reception  in  the 
Protestant  provinces  was  scarcely  less  cordial,  for  his  charm 
of  manner  and  fine  presence  won  all  hearts.  At  Ottawa  both 
parties  vied  with  each  other  in  showing  him  respect  and  con- 
sideration, and  at  Toronto  the  cabinet  gave  him  a  public  recep- 
tion which  was  attended  by  persons  of  all  faiths  and  creeds. 

In  connection  with  his  visit  to  Toronto  an  amusing  incident 
occurred.  In  the  Catholic  province  of  Quebec  he  was,  in 
accordance  with  custom,  at  liberty  to  wear  the  elaborate  eccle- 
siastical dress  of  a  monsignore,  even  on  the  streets.  But  in 
Ontario,  a  Protestant  province,  the  custom  is  quite  different, 
and  a  Catholic  clergyman,  just  as  in  the  United  States,  wears 
broadcloth  and  the  plain  Roman  collar  as  his  street  costume. 
Through  some  accident  his  baggage  containing  the  plain  gar- 
ments failed  to  arrive  upon  the  train,  and  Mgr.  Merry  del  Val 
realized  that  he  must  involuntarily  break  the  law,  and  sug- 
gested that  he  turn  back  and  wait  until  his  suitable  clothing  be 
found.  But  the  people  would  not  hear  of  such  a  thing,  and  so 
during  his  entire  sojourn  in  Toronto  he  appeared  in  his  eccle- 
siastical robes  without  exciting  any  adverse  criticism. 

The  task  assigned  to  him  in  Canada  was  no  small  one,  but 
he  successfully  adjusted  the  claims  of  the  Canadian  Hierarchy 
as  to  separate  Catholic  schools  in  Manitoba  with  the  general 
policy  of  the  Provincial  and  Dominion  governments  as  ad- 
vanced by  distinguished  Catholic  laymen  like  Sir  Wilfred 
Laurier  and  Sir  Charles  Fitzpatrick,  a  task  demanding  a 
breadth  and  independence  of  view  in  which  the  future  Cardi- 
nal did  not  fail.  Many  had  predicted  the  failure  of  his  mis- 
sion ;  but  it  was  an  absolute  success.  A  modus  vivendi  was 
found  between  Church  and  State,  as  well  as  upon  the  question 
of  the  French  and  English  languages  there,  and  the  internal 
peace  of  the  Church  in  Canada  was  secured  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  permanent  Apostolic  Delegate  for  the  Dominion. 


CARDINAL  RAPHAEL  MERRY  DEL  VAL      309 

Shortly  after  his  return  to  Rome  he  was  made  President  of 
the  Accademia  dei  Nobili  Ecclesiastici  and  served  until  1901, 
as  the  head  of  the  institution  in  which  he  himself  had  been 
educated.  On  April  19,  1900,  he  was  consecrated  titular  Arch- 
bishop of  Nice,  and  two  years  later  was  translated  to  be  titular 
Archbishop  of  Nicosia.  In  this  latter  year  he  also  published 
his  first  book,  "The  Truth  of  the  Papal  Claims,"  and  in  1902 
revisited  London  as  the  Papal  Envoy  at  the  coronation  of  King 
Edward  VII,  where  he  was  well  received. 

Owing  to  the  death  of  Mgr.  Volpini  a  few  days  before 
Leo  XIII  died  in  1903,  a  new  Secretary,  for  the  Consistory 
assembled  to  elect  a  new  Pope,  was  required,  and  the  choice 
by  the  vote  of  the  College  of  Cardinals  fell  upon  Mgr.  Merry 
del  Val.  He  was  thus  brought  into  daily  personal  contact  with 
the  new  Pope,  Pius  X,  to  whom  after  his  election  as  Pope 
he  acted  as  Secretary  of  State  pending  a  permanent  appoint- 
ment. One  day  in  the  early  part  of  October,  1903,  as  Mgr. 
Merry  del  Val  was  leaving  the  Pope's  room  with  a  basketful 
of  correspondence  and  papers  which  had  just  been  dealt  with, 
Pius  X  called  him  back  for  a  moment  and  handed  him  another 
letter,  remarking  casually,  "Monsignor,  this  is  also  for  you." 
Mgr.  Merry  del  Val  jammed  it  down  on  top  of  the  pile  in  the 
basket  and  passed  on  into  his  own  apartment,  where  he  emp- 
tied the  basket  on  his  table  and  began  to  go  through  the  vari- 
ous papers  and  letters.  When  he  came  to  the  last  letter  given 
him,  he  found  to  his  surprise  that  it  was  a  letter  written  by  the 
Pope's  own  hand,  appointing  him  permanent  Secretary  of 
State,  and  stating  that  His  Holiness  was  convinced  from  the 
way  in  which  the  business  of  the  office  was  handled  that  he 
would  look  no  further  for  a  competent  Secretary  of  State. 
The  surprise  and  shock  were  so  sudden  that  the  newly  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  State  almost  fell  from  his  chair,  and  a 
friend  who  was  in  the  room  ran  to  assist  him,  picked  up  the 
letter,  and  thus  its  contents  became  known. 

On  the  1 2th  of  November,  1903,  at  the  first  public  consis- 
tory held  after  his  election,  Pope  Pius  X  created  the  young 
Secretary  of  State  a  cardinal  priest  in  the  Sistine  chapel 
with  the  title  of  the  Church  of  Saint  Praxedes.  The  cardinals 
represent  the  original  archdiocese  and  province  of  Rome,  with 
the  six  cardinal  bishops,  suflfragan  to  the  Pope  as  archbishop; 
the  fifty-four  cardinal  priests    representing  the  ancient  par- 


310  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

ishes  of  the  province  of  Rome,  and  the  fourteen  cardinal 
deacons,  those  who  served  as  deacons  in  the  early  churches 
of  Rome  w^hen  the  Church  became  recognized  as  a  lawful  re- 
ligion after  the  persecutions.  They  are  the  Senate  of  the 
universal  Church,  and  are  the  body  from  which  the  Pope  is 
selected  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  cardinal  bishops,  are 
the  honorary  rectors  or  pastors  of  the  churches  to  which  they 
are  assigned. 

As  Secretary  of  State,  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val  has  his  official 
residence  in  the  Vatican  palace  itself.  He  also  has  a  summer 
villa  at  No.  ii  Via  della  Valtellina,  a  short  distance  outside 
the  Portese  gate,  to  which  he  goes  in  a  motor  car  from  the 
Vatican  very  much  like  the  business  man  of  to-day  who  lives  on 
the  outskirts  of  the  city.  Here,  too,  he  keeps  up  his  athletic  ex- 
ercises and  keeps  himself  in  good  bodily  trim.  Occasionally 
he  automobiles  to  Castel  Gandolfo  or  to  Lake  Bracciona, 
where  he  can  indulge  in  swimming.  But  there  is  also  another 
side  of  the  Cardinal  which  is  scarcely  so  well  known,  and  one 
for  which  the  exacting  duties  of  his  high  office  leave  but  little 
time  nowadays.  While  he  was  Cameriere  Segreto  Partici- 
pante  he  used  to  go  in  the  evenings  to  the  Trastevere,  where 
the  work  which  he  organized  among  the  poorest  of  the  poor 
of  Rome  has  its  headquarters  in  the  poor  boys'  school  and 
club.  This  club,  a  forerunner  of  our  Ozanam  associations, 
was  developed  by  him  for  years  with  unfailing  energy,  and 
now  contains  hundreds  of  boy  members,  many  of  them  saved 
from  ruin  by  its  influence.  This  is  the  kind  of  work  into 
which  he  has  put  his  whole  soul,  and  which  he  still  looks  after 
through  others,  although  he  is  Secretary  of  State.  Not  only 
did  he  devote  himself  to  the  people  of  the  Trastevere  quarter, 
but  he  was  regularly  in  his  confessional  first  at  San  Silvestro 
and  later  at  San  Giorgio,  and  late  at  night  numerous  peni- 
tents, many  of  them  the  poorest  of  the  poor,  might  be  seen 
waiting  their  turn  seeking  for  his  consolation  and  direction. 
And  he  is  still  a  confessor — preferably  for  the  poor — at  such 
times  as  he  can  be  spared  from  his  duties.  It  was  charac- 
teristic of  him  that  when  he  was  created  a  Cardinal  he  sub- 
stituted for  the  usual  feast  which  new  Cardinals  offer  to  their 
friends  and  relations  a  banquet  for  his  poor  penitents  and  boys 
in  the  Trastevere. 

The  first  duty  of  the  Papal  Secretary  of  State  is  to  take 


CARDINAL  RAPHAEL  MERRY  DEL  VAL   311 

charge  of  the  relations  between  the  Holy  See  and  foreign 
countries,  but  he  also  takes  part  in  all  the  important  acts  of 
the  Papal  Court.  His  office  makes  him  the  wielder  of  the 
Pope's  diplomacy ;  his  post  makes  him  the  alter  ego  of  the 
Pope,  and  he  is  constantly  associated  with  him  in  all  kinds 
of  affairs  which  are  not  strictly  diplomatic.  There  are,  as  is 
generally  known,  a  good  many  envoys  at  Rome  accredited 
to  the  Holy  See  by  foreign  countries,  in  addition  to  those  who 
represent  their  countries  at  the  Court  of  Italy. 

Twice  a  week,  on  Tuesdays  and  Fridays,  the  Secretary  of 
State  receives  the  ambassadors  to  the  Holy  See,  one  after 
another;  and  the  ambassadors  of  the  great  countries  having 
almost  always  some  business  to  transact,  are  constant  attend- 
ants at  these  functions.  These  receptions  rank  first  among 
the  duties  of  the  Secretary  of  State.  Next  to  them  comes  his 
correspondence  with  the  nuncios.  A  nuncio  is  the  Papal 
equivalent  of  an  ambassador  sent  to  a  country  having  diplo- 
matic relations  with  the  Pope.  The  Secretary  of  State  re- 
ceives their  reports  and  communicates  his  instructions  to  them. 
In  addition  to  this  is  the  endless  correspondence  from  papal 
delegates  in  countries  where  there  is  no  nuncio,  as  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Canada,  the  numerous  telegrams  and 
cablegrams  which  come  from  all  over  the  world,  and  the  nu- 
merous details  of  Italian  and  Roman  Church  government 
where  it  impinges  upon  that  of  the  State. 

Every  morning  the  Pope  receives  the  Cardinal  Secretary, 
and  they  discuss  the  condition  of  the  Church.  When  they 
have  finished  their  consultation,  the  Secretary  attends  to  the 
correspondence.  He  may  write  the  replies  himself,  or  he 
may  pass  on  the  point  involved  and  leave  the  details  to  the 
prelates  attached  to  his  office, •or  may  instruct  them  to  look 
into  delicate  questions  upon  which  the  decision  has  been  post- 
poned. He  has,  of  course,  to  carry  out  the  instructions  he 
receives  at  the  audience,  and  to  prepare  the  business  he  is 
going  to  submit  to  the  Pope  at  the  next  audience.  It  might 
be  thought  that  this  was  too  much  to  be  crowded  into  the  life 
of  any  man.  But  in  addition  to  this,  it  is  the  custom  of  Car- 
dinal Merry  del  Val  to  receive  non-official  visitors  every  eve- 
ning for  an  hour  after  the  Angelus.  He  is  consulted  upon 
all  sorts  of  questions  at  these  receptions ;  he  is  the  Pope's 
Prime  Minister ;  and  he  has  to  be  familiar  with  every  question 


312  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

which  touches  the  Church.  Every  piece  of  information,  and 
every  application  intended  for  the  Pope,  has  to  be  transmitted 
through  him. 

Thus  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State  needs  encyclopaedic 
knowledge  and  almost  superhuman  intuition  and  tact ;  and 
they  are  gifts  with  which  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val  is  richly 
blessed.  He  has  to  pass  quickly  from  subject  to  subject  with- 
out losing  the  threads ;  he  has  to  know  what  people  are  talking 
about  and  to  divine  their  real  aims ;  and  to  send  them  away 
satisfied  that  justice  will  be  done.  One  visitor  may  have  im- 
portant information  or  suggestions  to  make  about  the  troubles 
with  France,  Spain  or  Portugal ;  the  next  may  be  urging  or 
opposing  in  all  sorts  of  ways  the  candidature  of  an  arch- 
bishop, perhaps  here  in  the  United  States,  who  he  thinks 
ought  to  be  made  a  cardinal ;  and  the  next  may  be  some  eccle- 
siastical nobleman  or  official  who  desires  to  get  the  Pope  to 
take  his  side  in  a  petty  squabble :  while  another  may  bring 
forth  matters  of  real  interest  towards  the  growth  of  the 
Church  or  the  management  of  perplexing  questions. 

No  Prime  Minister  in  Europe  is  so  accessible,  and,  since 
everything  that  concerns  religion  is  considered  to  come  under 
the  Pope's  authority,  the  Secretary  of  State  is  deprived  of  that 
circumlocution  and  that  favorite  refuge  of  statesmen :  "Take 
the  matter  next  door,"  which  is  nowhere  displayed  with  such 
exasperating  regularity  as  in  the  various  departments  of  the 
present  Italian  State  government.  The  Cardinal  Secretary, 
however,  is  allowed  the  widest  discretion,  because  one  of  his 
most  important  functions  is  to  save  the  Pope  from  unneces- 
sary business. 

There  are  few  people  who  know  so  much  of  the  religious 
affairs  of  all  countries  as  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val ;  he  is  sim- 
ply obliged  to  keep  himself  in  touch  with  them,  and  being  half 
an  Englishman,  with  English  as  his  native  tongue,  he  has  a 
grasp  of  the  affairs  of  the  various  Protestant  denominations 
and  of  English  and  American  opinion  which  no  previous 
Papal  Secretary  of  State  ever  had.  More  than  that,  his  knowl- 
edge of  English  and  American  character,  which  is  wonderful, 
rests  on  the  firm  basis  of  having  himself  sterling  Anglo-Saxon 
qualities. 

His  time  for  book  reading  is  necessarily  limited,  but  the 
way  he  keeps  up  with  the  newspapers  of  all  countries  is  ex- 


CARDINAL  RAPHAEL  MERRY  DEL  VAL      313 

traordinary,    for   several  news-clipping  bureaus   are  busy   at 
his  behest,  and  there  is  a  great  deal  besides  in  the  Vatican  tra- 
dition that  much  is  to  be  learned  by  patiently  listening  to  the 
visitors  who  come  to  receptions.     He  has  in  addition  a  corps 
of  correspondents  and  responsible  confidential  advisers  in  va- 
rious coimtries.     He  is  necessarily  obliged  to  make  personal 
enemies  by  his  decisions,  since  he  cannot  decide  in  favor  of 
both  opponents ;  and  in  addition,  all  the  enemies  of  the  Church 
are  his  enemies.     The   most  trifling  demand  upon  him  may 
mask  important  moves ;  the  acts  of  the  Holy  See  nowadays  in 
the  fierce  searchlight  levelled  by  the  Press  of  the  world  are 
commented  on  with  peculiar  assiduity;  and  a  secret   signifi- 
cance, a  malevolent  import,  is  often  imputed  to  the  simplest  of 
them.      Before  he  allows   himself  to  issue  one   word   in  the 
name  of  the  Pope,  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val  has  to  divine  what 
deductions  will  be  made  from  it  by  commentators  in  good  or 
bad  faith  ;  and  in  order  to  write  with  safety  what  he  wishes  to 
say,  he  has  to  think  not  only  what  his  words  do  mean,  but 
what  by  any  unfortunate  twist  they  can  be  made  to  mean. 

In  order  to  get  at  the  root  of  matters,  he  must  take  ex- 
traordinary precautions  and  unusual  advice.     In  the  matter  of 
the  separation  of  Church  and  State  in  France  some  of  the  most 
astute  French  lawyers  were  employed  to  take  up  the  entire 
legal  situation  created  by  the  new  French  legislation  creating 
the  so-called  conseils,  or  boards  of  trustees,  for  the  churches 
and  church  property.    When  it  was  clearly  demonstrated  that 
the  only  effect  the  law  would  have  was  to  throw  the  ultimate 
control  of  church  property,   church  worship  and   the   entire 
teaching  and   sacramental   system   of   the   Church   under   lay 
governmental   officialdom,   he  would   have  none  of  it.     This 
legal  advice  and  the  opinion  then  formed  by  him  have  been 
amply  sustained  by  the  trend  of  events  in  France  since  that 
time.     When  we  consider  that  a  French  Protestant  Church  of 
New  York  City  has  just  had  to  take  upon  itself  the  financial 
support  and  direction  of  two  Protestant  Churches  in  France, 
bereft  of  their  sustenance  by  the  law  of  separation,  we  can 
well  appreciate  the  clear-headed  judgment  Cardinal  Merry  del 
Val  possessed  at  the  time,  to  save  the  Catholic  Church  from 
becoming  little  more  than  an  obsequious  lackey  to  government 

bureaus. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  matters  in  Spain.     The  Cardinal 


314  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Secretary  of  State  is  a  Spaniard  by  ancestry  and  knows  his 
country  and  his  countrymen  through  and  through.  He  is  also 
advised  by  the  best  international  jurists,  experienced  in  canon 
and  international  law,  and  has  fully  considered  the  rights  of 
the  Church  in  the  larger  sense,  in  his  controversy  with  the 
present  Spanish  government  over  the  Concordat.  Force  may, 
with  anarchistic  elements,  prevail  over  logic  and  law  and 
order,  but  if  it  does  so  prevail  it  will  be  destructive  in  its  char- 
acter for  Spain.  On  the  other  hand,  he  would  welcome  a  sys- 
tem whereby  the  Church  might  work  out  its  mission  of  saving 
souls  unhampered  by  State  interference,  as  it  does  in  Canada 
or  the  United  States.  The  idea  of  separation  of  Church  and 
State,  as  advocated  by  the  ultra  socialistic  republican  leaders 
of  France,  Portugal  and  Spain,  seems  to  be  that  the  Church 
shall  give  up  all  its  vested  rights  and  all  the  property  pos- 
sessed by  it,  whilst  the  State  shall  still  control  the  Church  and 
people,  and  the  church  authorities  at  every  turn,  even  as  to 
the  manner  and  method  of  teaching  its  own  religious  doctrines 
and  enforcing  its  precepts.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  such  a 
thing  would  not  be  tolerated  in  the  United  States. 

Cardinal  Merry  del  Val  is  still  a  young  man  as  such  things 
go  in  the  great  ecclesiastical  world.  He  has  already  made  a 
great  name  for  himself,  and  his  urbanity,  courtesy  and  frank 
good-will  have  made  him  appreciated  by  all  who  have  trans- 
acted business  with  him  or  with  the  Holy  See.  He  has  made 
many  more  rooms  of  the  Vatican  accessible  to  the  general 
public,  has  lighted  the  crypts  of  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter's 
with  electric  light  and  made  the  entrance  to  them  compara- 
tively easy  for  the  visitor,  and  in  general  has  shown  a 
leaning  towards  a  democratic  regime  in  regard  to  the 
treasures,  artistic  and  architectural,  in  the  Vatican  and  St. 
Peter's.  He  has  almost  entirely  changed  the  rulings  of  the 
guardians  of  the  basilica  and  the  palace  of  the  Vatican  in  that 
regard.  In  addition  to  that,  he  has  shown  himself  very  gra- 
cious towards  Americans,  of  all  denominations,  who  visit  the 
Holy  See.  Where,  however,  it  has  been  sought  to  use  the 
visit  to  the  Pope  as  the  pretext  for  assisting  the  political  propa- 
ganda of  local  Roman  parties  opposed  to  the  Holy  See,  he 
has  sternly  set  his  face  against  it.  It  was  a  consideration  of 
this  point  of  view  which  led  to  the  Fairbanks  and  the  Roose- 
velt incidents,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  neither  of  those 


CARDINAL  RAPHAEL  MERRY  DEL  VAL      315 

distinguished  visitors  to  Rome  took  into  consideration  the 
petty  poHtical  intrigue  and  opposition  to  the  Holy  Father 
which  they  were  unconsciously  assisting  and  fomenting  when 
those  incidents  occurred.  Later  events  and  cooler  judgment 
have  shown  the  complete  wisdom  of  the  position  then  as- 
sumed by  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val. 

The  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State  is  a  man  who  has  the 
qualities  which  one  admires  in  a  great  statesman  and  an  active, 
thorough-going  administrator  of  the  affairs  of  a  great  Church. 
As  time  goes  on  we  believe  that  his  fame  and  abilities  will 
increase,  and  his  personal  devotion,  uprightness  and  faith  will 
make  him  stand  high  among  those  on  whom  the  Church  has 
relied  to  uphold  the  hands  and  the  courage  of  the  Sovereign 
Pontiff  in  his  government  of  the  Church  throughout  the  world. 


ADDRESSES    ON    VARIOUS    OCCASIONS 


EDUCATION   AND   RELIGION 

Delivered  at  Canisius  College,  Buffalo,  1913 

THERE  is  no  part  of  our  modern  life  in  this  State 
which  has  progressed  so  rapidly  as  education.  In  the 
earlier  days  of  the  Republic  there  was  not  the  abun- 
dance of  educational  apparatus  which  is  enjoyed  by  us.  Then 
the  State  had  not  conceived  the  idea  that  teaching  was  one 
of  its  functions. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  colleges  and 
academies — for  there  was  then  scarcely  such  a  thing  as  a 
university — were  founded  and  maintained  almost  wholly  by 
individuals.  Once  in  a  great  while  they  obtained  subsidy  and 
assistance  from  the  State — but  that  was  a  rarity — and  the 
State  left  them  to  their  own  devices.  The  primary  schools, 
as  we  should  call  them  nowadays,  were  maintained  by  private 
means.  But  at  the  end  of  the  third  decade  of  the  century 
there  came  a  change.  Municipalities,  and  afterwards  the 
State  itself,  took  up  and  monopolized  the  system  of  public  or 
gratuitous  primary  instruction.  Gradually  this  was  extended 
to  secondary  education,  and  it  has  grown,  until  to-day  the 
State  exercises  supervision,  if  not  actual  rule,  over  every 
form  of  teaching  within  its  borders. 

When  I  speak  of  the  State,  it  may  be  considered  as  apply- 
ing to  the  State  of  New  York,  but  in  reality  it  is  applicable 
to  any  of  the  various  commonwealths  which  make  up  our 
United  States.  But,  to  have  a  comprehensive  idea  of  what  I 
mean  by  the  State,  I  may  briefly  define  it  as  meaning  "all  of 
us."  It  is  not  a  vague  entity,  overwhelming  the  individual  or 
antagonistic  to  church  or  creed  ;  it  is,  in  my  meaning,  the  re- 
sultant expression,  in  concrete  form,  of  the  united,  dissent- 
ing or  modifying  views  of  the  entire  mass  of  the  citizens.  It 
is  in  this  sense  that  I  use  the  word. 

Since,  therefore,  the  State  has  taken  upon  itself  the  super- 
vision, where  it   does  not  actually  take  the  direction,  of  all 

319 


320  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

education  within  its  geographical  borders,  it  behooves  us  to 
study  what  education  may  really  mean.  If  we  take  the  sched- 
ules of  instruction  provided  by  the  authorities  as  the  minimum 
required  for  graduation  from  a  given  school  or  classroom, 
the  necessary  requisite  for  promotion  to  the  next  grade,  or  the 
exaction  for  entrance  to  high  school  or  college,  or  even  for  the 
reception  of  a  degree  in  arts,  literature,  science,  medicine  or 
law,  and  study  them  through  and  through,  we  fail  to  get  an 
absolutely  complete  idea  of  what  education  really  is.  To  in- 
struct the  learner  mentally,  to  practise  him  in  the  intellectual 
gymnastics  of  knowledge,  as  a  circus  performer  or  acrobat  is 
taught  to  perform  wonderful  feats,  is  not  enough.  That  may 
enable  him  to  pass  clever  examinations  and  sustain  difficult 
theses,  or  even  to  make  new  and  brilliant  discoveries,  but  after 
all  it  is  not  the  sum  and  substance  of  education.  But  that  is 
as  far  as  the  State — considered  in  its  present  position — can 
go,  for  it  deals  with  material,  not  spiritual  things,  and  can 
only  see  that  the  physical  and  material  equipment  is  good. 
The  development  of  what  lies  entirely  within  the  conscience, 
the  awakening  of  the  heart-strings  moved  by  the  moral  law, 
it  must  leave  to  other  hands,  since  so  far  no  provision  has  been 
made  for  this  in  its  schedules. 

Yet,  as  I  have  said,  the  State  is  but  the  concrete  form  of  "all 
of  us,"  expressing  the  hope  and  aim  of  our  united  will  and 
wisdom.  As  such  it  must  look  to  a  perpetuation  of  itself 
upon  an  even  higher  plane.  We  do  not  wish  our  successors 
to  be  of  less  worth  than  we  are;  they  ought  to  be  of  better 
fibre.  The  whole  matter,  therefore,  becomes  one  of  immedi- 
ate interest  to  each  of  us ;  because  in  a  sort  of  a  political  pan- 
theistic phrase  we  are  each  a  part  of  the  State.  The  education 
provided  by  our  institutions,  no  matter  where  or  what  they  are, 
ought  to  produce  material  for  good  citizens,  ought  to  make 
each  component  of  the  State  turned  out  by  them  higher  ex- 
ponents of  everything  that  is  good  and  noble  in  man.  Water 
cannot  rise  higher  than  its  source,  and  so  the  State  cannot  be 
better  than  the  collective  goodness  and  wisdom  of  its  citizens. 
It  is  a  theme  for  you  and  for  me  to  ponder. 

Now,  without  in  anywise  touching  on  or  discussing  the 
question  of  creed,  it  must  be  apparent  that  the  religious  and 
moral  sense  of  an  individual  is  a  very  large  part  of  his  make- 
up.    It  is  figuratively  the  compass  by  which  he  steers  his  life. 


EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION  321 

and  the  solace  by  which  he  is  enabled  to  bear  its  burdens  and 
defeats.  Hence  anything  which  encourages  this  sense,  which 
arouses  the  moral  nature  and  conduces  to  heroic  effort  in  the 
student,  ought  to  be  encouraged  and  fostered. 

It  is  precisely  in  this  most  important  point  that  the  sched- 
ules provided  by  the  State  are  deficient.  But  where  the  State 
does  not  so  provide,  you  and  I,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  we  are 
a  part  of  the  State,  may  do  so.  And  the  State  ought  to  wel- 
come us  in  the  effort  to  produce  men  not  only  learned  accord- 
ing to  the  schedules  it  provides,  but  proficient  also  in  the 
power  and  graces  of  soul  and  conscience.  It  all  makes  for 
better,  nobler  and  more  conscientious  citizenship.  It  thus 
constitutes  a  thorough,  all-around  education,  and  preserves 
the  integrity  of  human  nature. 

It  is  axiomatic  that  bodies  move  along  the  plane  of  least 
resistance.  The  same  is  true  of  men  and  women.  An  artist 
will  gladly  study  art ;  a  musician,  music,  and  thus  through 
the  gamut  of  human  interests — we  ought  to  encourage  them 
to  do  so. 

This,  then,  is  the  basis  for  the  school  which  teaches  reli- 
gion as  a  part  of  its  course,  and  not  merely  incidentally  as  a 
side  elective  for  Sundays,  perhaps.  It  wishes  to  produce  good 
citizens  and  it  wishes  to  develop  their  whole  nature.  It  will 
not  do  merely  to  listen  to  music  to  become  a  musician,  not- 
withstanding the  inclination ;  one  must  practice  it.  The 
painter  is  not  made  so  by  visiting  many  art  galleries,  although 
he  be  enraptured  thereby;  he  must  work  on  many  canvases 
to  produce  results.  And  so  it  is  in  the  practice  of  religious, 
civic  and  moral  virtues ;  steady  practice,  like  the  rewriting 
of  Latin  themes  and  restating  mathematical  problems,  can 
alone  achieve  success. 

When,  therefore,  an  institution  like  this  one,  in  addition  to 
its  prescribed  secular  teaching,  uses  the  strongest  incentive 
ever  brought  to  bear  upon  the  human  heart  and  mind  and 
conscience — the  exercise  of  religion — to  make  the  student 
keep  his  mind  and  heart  pure  and  steadfast,  the  State  ought 
to  bid  it  godspeed. 

Now,  in  what  does  even  secular  education  consist?  It 
ought  to  mean  the  full  development  of  the  student  and  his 
appreciation  of  things  as  they  exist  around  him.  He  ought 
to  be  made  aware  of  his  duties  as  well  as  his  rights.     The 


122.  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

feudal  system  passed  away  in  the  eighteenth  century.     It  was 
a  nobly  conceived   system  of   government,   which   lasted    for 
nearly  five  hundred   years,   founded   upon   duties  as   well   as 
rights.      When   the  governing  class   forgot   their   duties    and 
insisted  only  upon  their  rights,  the  feudal  system  fell;  for  it 
was   like  a   scale   which   was   overbalanced.     To   it   has   suc- 
ceeded the  industrial  and  democratic  regime.     The  latter  will 
do  well  if  it  lasts  one-half  as  long  as  the  feudal  system  did. 
It  may  seem  like  contradicting  every  modern  view  of  history 
and  progress  to  cast  doubts  upon  a  purely  democratic  popular 
regime,  but  I  have  in  mind  an  example  which  seems  to  do  so, 
and  which  nearly  every  one  is  quoting  as  a  most  brilliant  ex- 
ample in  government.     The  Panama   Canal  Zone  is  lauded 
from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other  as  an  example  of 
almost  perfect  government.     Things  go  like  clock-work;  dis- 
ease and  destitution  are  banished ;  there  is  justice  and  plenty 
for  all.     But  it  is  a  one-man  government — merely  a  benevo- 
lent despotism  after  all.    The  people  there  have  no  say  in  it ; 
democracy  is  invisible  at  Panama. 

In  fact,  it  rests  upon  the  same  fundamental  principle  as 
the  feudal  system.  The  rights  of  the  governing  power  are 
correlative  with  its  duties  towards  the  welfare  of  the  gov- 
erned. So  long  as  they  are  made  to  balance  the  government 
is  a  success.  And  the  same  rule  holds  good  in  democracies. 
When  industrialism  succeeded  to  the  feudal  system,  and 
even  when  taken  over  by  democracy  in  government,  it,  too, 
forgot  that  duties  followed  rights.  That  is  one  of  the  causes 
of  the  industrial  unrest  to-day,  which  breaks  out  in  varied 
forms,  all  the  way  from  socialism  to  anarchy.  The  financial 
magnate,  railroad  king,  or  captain  of  a  thousand  industries 
too  often  regards  his  enterprises  as  his  personal  individual 
property  and  acts  accordingly,  like  the  feudal  monarch  of  two 
centuries  ago.  He  forgets  his  duties,  but  clings  tenaciously  to 
his  rights.  Where  he  rules  an  industrial  empire  with  almost 
as  many  subjects  as  the  feudal  chieftain,  the  people  of  that 
empire  with  keen  memory  of  duties  forgotten  are  going  to 
act  exactly  as  they  did  a  century  ago  to  get  constitutional  gov- 
ernment. They  are  bound  to  have  a  voice  in  the  industries 
which  they  sustain  by  their  labor.  It  is  your  duty,  gentlemen 
of  the  graduating  class,  and  your  future  task  to  see  that  they 
divide  the  power  and  responsibilities  with  the  heads  of  such 


EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION  323 

industries  in  a  wise  and  progressive  manner.  Abolutisni  in 
industry,  like  absolutism  in  government,  in  the  present  temper 
of  things  is  bound  to  fail;  and  it  can  only  lay  its  downfall  to 
its  utter  disregard  of  its  bounden  duties  to  those  below. 

While  this  is  going  on  in  the  industrial  and  political  world, 
there  are  all  sorts  of  panaceas  brought  forward.  As  soon  as 
a  portion  of  mankind  is  suffering  from  an  ailment  any  number 
of  quack  doctors  arise  with  new  cure-alls.  The  most  promi- 
nent one  nowadays  in  socialism.  As  a  philosophic  theory,  as  a 
means  of  affording  an  ideal  of  the  wth  degree,  by  which  to  pat- 
tern improvements  in  legislation  it  may  do  very  well.  I  pur- 
posely do  not  touch  upon  its  vagaries  in  relation  to  the  things 
hitherto  held  sacred  by  the  general  assent  of  mankind  in  rela- 
tion to  the  family,  the  State  and  personal  morality.  It  is 
merely  the  working  of  the  actual  government  social  machine 
to  which  I  shall  allude.  The  question  is:  Who  shall  watch 
the  watchers?  Socialistic  government  must  have  its  heads 
and  officers.  If  our  governments  so  far — and  we  have  enough 
of  the  most  ideal  laws  on  the  statute  books — cannot  prevent 
bribery  among  legislators,  violation  of  oaths  by  officials,  pecu- 
lation of  high  and  low  degree  in  state  and  municipal  govern- 
ment, to  say  nothing  of  grosser  forms  of  governmental  wick- 
edness, how  can  we  hope  for  anything  more  definite  to  be 
accomplished  under  the  form  of  socialism?  We  have  the 
same  weak  humanity  to  deal  with,  and  if  one  wants  reform 
in  government  or  industry,  humanity  must  be  essentially  re- 
formed ;  no  mere  method  will  effect  it. 

Take  one  familiar  example :  You  have  all  heard  about  the 
horrors  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  how  many  thousands  were 
put  to  death  by  it  in  Spain.  Well,  the  highest  that  any  im- 
aginative historian  ever  put  the  figures  for  the  fiercest  year 
was  about  900,  and  we  know  something  about  mob  law  and 
lynch  law  ourselves ;  yet  here  in  New  York  State  we  annually 
kill  from  2,500  to  4,000  persons.  The  two  countries  compare 
about  the  same  in  population.  The  Spanish  put  their  people 
to  death  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  the  day  for  what  they 
believed  as  a  principle,  probably  devotion  to  the  State  and 
Church ;  we  slaughter  ours  by  railways,  defective  machinery, 
automobiles,  elevators,  fire-traps,  and  a  dozen  preventable 
methods — all  for  the  purpose  of  greed,  economy  and  money- 
making — and  mostly  in  direct  violation   of  the  laws   on  the 


324  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

statute  book.  When  this  particular  age  is  viewed  in  the  per- 
spective of  a  century  or  so,  will  it  be  said  that  human  nature 
has  greatly  changed  in  its  treatment  of  man  by  his  fellow- 
man? 

If  socialism  succeeds  as  a  working  political  machine,  re- 
modelling our  laws  and  methods  of  distribution  of  wealth, 
how  m.uch  will  we  have  gained?  A  man  to-day  is  said  to 
worship  his  property  and  to  build  all  his  institutions  and  laws 
upon  it.  Well,  if  property  be  abolished,  minimized  or  rele- 
gated to  the  scrap-heap  of  politico-economic  delusions,  what 
shall  we  say  of  the  method  or  form  which  will  take  its  place? 
The  fact  is,  that  slavery  will  take  its  place.  A  man's  sole 
value  will  be  determined  by  his  economic  position  as  a  mere 
cog  in  the  vast  economic  machine.  We  will  have  then  the 
fedualism  of  rank  and  station,  power  and  command,  without 
the  checks  and  counter-balances  of  the  duties  inculcated  by 
feudalism.  Let  those  who  have  closely  observed  the  one-man 
power  or  the  committee  power  in  the  organization  and  man- 
agement of  recent  strikes,  and  point  the  difference  between 
the  social  economic  boss  and  the  harshest  political  boss.  For 
firmness  of  command  and  ruthlessness  of  decree  the  latter 
can  take  lessons  from  the  former.  How,  then,  can  we  be 
assured  that  our  later  position,  where  a  man's  standing  among 
his  fellow-men  rests  upon  his  position  or  "job,"  will  be  bet- 
ter than  the  earlier  one  of  property?  If  men  will  do  so  much 
for  property  now,  what  will  they  not  do  for  position  and 
power  then,  unless  human  nature  be  radically  changed  ? 

We  may  illustrate  this  by  a  witty  statement  of  what  pana- 
ceas have  been  offered  us  in  other  lines.  Take,  for  instance, 
that  of  health : 

"The  world  was  to  be  made  over  by  means  of  the  bicycle. 
The  straphanger  was  to  abandon  his  strap  and  ride  joyfully 
down  the  cable-slot,  imbibing  ozone  on  his  way  to  business. 
The  factory  hand  was  to  abandon  his  city  tenement  and  live 
in  the  open  country,  going  to  and  from  his  work  upon  the 
wheel.  The  old  were  to  grow  young  again,  and  the  young 
were  to  dream  close  to  the  heart  of  nature.  The  doctors  were 
to  perish  of  starvation.     But  where  is  the  bicycle  to-day? 

"The  world  was  to  be  made  over  by  jiu-jitsu.  Elderly 
gentlemen  were  to  regain  the  waist-line  of  youth  by  ten  min- 
utes' practice  every  morning.     Slim  young  women,  when  at- 


EDUCATION  AND  RELIGION  325 

tacked  by  heavy  ruffians,  were  to  seize  their  assailants  by  the 
wrist  and  hurl  them  over  their  right  shoulder.  The  police 
were  to  suppress  rioters  by  mere  muscular  contraction.  The 
doctors,  as  before,  were  to  grow  extinct  by  starvation.  But 
where  is  jiu-jitsu  to-day? 

"The  world  was  to  be  regenerated  by  denatured  alcohol. 
Denatured  alcohol — with  the  tax  ofif — was  to  drive  all  our 
machines,  propel  our  automobiles,  run  our  factories,  and  re- 
duce the  cost  of  Hving  to  a  ridiculous  minimum.  But  where 
is  denatured  alcohol  to-day? 

"The  world  was  to  be  regenerated  by  sour  milk ;  by  the 
simple  life ;  by  sleeping  in  the  open  air.  But  where  now  are 
Professor  Metchnikoff  and  Pastor  Wagner?  And  the  doc- 
tors are  still  with  us,  even  more  numerous  than  before. 

"Does  this  show  we  must  give  up  all  hope  of  seeing  a  new 
world  about  us?  By  no  means.  We  still  have  eugenics,  and 
it  is  good  for  two  or  three  years  more.  Then  we  shall  ask 
the  same  question  about  it." 

Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  latter  method  of  saving  the  world, 
by  eugenics,  is  purely  material,  without  reference  to  the 
beauty  of  the  soul  within,  or  its  expression  in  practical  virtue. 

The  Catholic  Church,  wiser  than  local  faddists,  has  used 
the  nineteen  centuries  of  her  experience  to  unfold  a  method 
of  right  living,  which  deals  not  with  certificates  or  the  physi- 
cal health  of  a  few,  but  the  carefully  inculcated  purity  of 
soul  and  body  of  every  one  who  craves  her  ministrations.  She 
knows  no  "single  standard."  The  law  of  virtue  is  judged 
alike  for  all.  She  does  not  merely  ask  that  the  outward 
health  of  the  adult  be  certified ;  but  she  makes  sure  of  the  stu- 
dent and  the  learner  from  the  entrance  into  manhood  and 
womanhood.  She  teaches  purity  of  mind  and  soul,  not  merely 
cleanliness  of  body. 

It  is  the  same  in  the  field  of  education.  The  standard  for 
the  greatest  results  must  be  an  education  where  the  soul  is 
taught  as  well  as  the  body;  where  the  heart  and  the  higher 
nature  of  man  are  as  carefully  directed  as  the  cravings  for 
material  ends  are  developed.  Nor  need  a  single  point  in  the 
secular  side  of  education  be  neglected  for  a  moment.  These 
are  the  standards  which  are  set  by  an  education  which  will 
not  and  cannot  leave  religious  and  moral  teaching  out  of  its 
curriculum  for  an  instant.     Its  standards  are  not  to  give  the 


326  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

student  less,  but  to  afford  him  more  of  all  that  becomes  a  man. 
And  at  the  same  time  it  should  afford  him  the  means  to  think, 
to  weigh  and  appreciate  the  panaceas,  the  loudly  shouted  nos- 
trums of  the  soap-box  and  hired-hall  oratory,  which  are  her- 
alded as  being  able  to  overturn  the  old  established  order  of 
things. 

Now,  gentlemen  of  the  graduating  class,  it  is  your  task  to 
take  an  active  part  in  these  matters  for  the  future.  This  is 
your  Commencement  Day ;  the  time  when  you  are  to  com- 
mence to  examine  the  state  of  affairs  around  you  and  to  take 
a  more  or  less  prominent  part  in  the  direction  of  things. 
Above  all  things  examine  carefully  the  basis  and  foundation 
of  things  you  are  asked  to  consider  or  to  promote.  It  be- 
hooves you  as  sample  products  of  your  Alma  Mater  to  take 
stock  of  theories  and  statements,  either  before  you  espouse 
them  or  condemn   them. 

You  may  otherwise  fall  into  the  same  position  as  the  little 
girl,  who  listened  attentively  but  did  not  understand,  and  told 
her  mother  that  she  had  learned  at  Sunday-school  that  King 
Herod  of  Judea  was  in  the  habit  of  running  down  his  people 
in  automobiles.  The  mother  was  astonished  and  sought  out 
the  teacher  and  found  that  what  the  teacher  had  given  the 
class  was  that  "Herod  overran  the  people  with  taxes." 
Therefore  examine  all  things ;  find  out  their  true  bearings  and 
application,  and  be  sure  that  you  understand  the  meaning. 

In  this  way  you  will  best  apply  your  learning;  in  this  way 
you  will  honor  your  Alma  Mater ;  and  in  this  way  you  will 
be  true  citizens  of  this  great  commonwealth.  And  when  to 
this  you  add  character,  uprightness  and  fair  dealing,  with  the 
sense  of  reverence  and  devotion  which  only  a  religious  train- 
ing inculcated  day  by  day  can  give,  you  will  have  demonstrated 
the  value  of  a  solid  secular  education  reinforced  and  but- 
tressed by  religious  principles.  It  will  keep  you  straight  upon 
the  road  of  life,  although  it  may  not  lead  you  to  riches. 

I  wish  the  Class  of  1913,  the  first  to  issue  from  these  walls, 
happiness,  health  and  a  long  and  honorable  life  of  success  in 
the  true  sense  of  the  word. 


MANNERS   MAKETH   MAN 

Delivered  at  Brooklyn  College,  1914 

THE  day  of  final  conquest  has  now  arrived  for  each  of 
you  and  each  must  now  put  his  studies  to  active  use 
in  the  world  and  pursue  still  further  the  roads  upon 
which  he  entered  the  kingdom  of  knowledge.  Your  gradua- 
tion must  be  turned  to  account.  It  must  be  added  to  and 
made  useful,  both  to  the  possessor  and  those  around  him. 
The  college  man  must  progress  more  than  those  who  have  not 
had  his  advantages,  if  his  study  and  his  development  are  to 
be  of  any  avail. 

One  of  the  colleges  at  Oxford  which  fascinated  me  the 
most  was  New  College.  It  was  a  college  with  a  park;  and 
colleges  which  have  a  park  attached  to  them  have  a  peculiar 
attraction  for  me.  The  college  from  which  I  graduated  had 
a  dense,  shady  park ;  and  around  its  walks  I  think — or  at 
least  I  used  to  think — I  got  the  makings  of  all  that  is  best 
within  me.  New  College  at  Oxford  is  one  of  the  oldest  col- 
leges there;  it  was  founded  back  in  1375.  New  College  is  not 
its  real  name,  either;  for  it  is  the  College  of  St.  Mary  of 
Winchester.  But  it  was  founded  at  a  time  when  there  was 
only  one  college  building  there;  so  some  five  hundred  and 
fifty  years  ago  it  was  really  a  "new"  college,  and  the  name 
has  remained  by  it  ever  since. 

That  College  of  St.  Mary  at  Oxford,  "New  College,"  was 
founded  by  one  of  the  remarkable  men  of  his  day,  William 
of  Wykeham,  Bishop  of  Winchester.  The  statutes  and  rules 
with  which  he  founded  and  endowed  it  remain  intact  until  to- 
day. Its  motto,  and  what  the  learned  bishop  insisted  upon, 
was  "Manners  maketh  man."  It  is  something  which  I  can 
commend  to  you  to-day.  Manners  in  the  old  thirteenth  cen- 
tury sense  of  the  term  did  not  mean  mere  outward  polite- 
ness, as  we  understand  the  word  to-day.  It  was  the  sturdy 
Anglo-Saxon   for  "Education   makes   a   man,"   and   William 

327 


328  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

of  Wykeham  thoroughly  believed  in  that  and  sought  to  en- 
force it  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  thousands  of  students 
who  have  passed  through  the  portals  of  his  college  since 
then. 

Education,  or  "manners,"  as  he  called  it,  meant  the  trainint^ 
of  every  side  of  a  man's  nature.  As  the  hand — manus  in 
Latin — vi^as  educated  to  all  the  varied  fineness  of  skill  and 
hence  gave  rise  to  the  word  "manners" ;  so  the  intellect  and 
soul  could  and  should  be  educated  in  all  the  varied  forms  of 
knowledge  and  virtue  which  "maketh  man."  So  the  sturdy 
old  bishop  set  up  a  monument  of  learning  which  has  not  yet 
fallen  into  decay ;  but  exists  as  an  example  of  what  one  man's 
clear  sense  of  true  education  can  afford  us  even  now. 

But  manners  are  not  to  be  acquired  without  a  struggle.  We 
must  ever  fight  down  and  pluck  out  the  weeds  that  grow  in 
the  garden  of  the  soul  and  the  intellect.  William  of  Wyke- 
ham's  pleasant  park  in  New  College  means  incessant  work  and 
labor  bestowed  upon  it  to  render  it  to-day  so  grateful  and 
pleasant.  Work,  work,  and  then  work,  must  be  the  text  and 
action  of  him  who  strives  after  the  "Manners  which  maketh 
man."  One  of  our  great  natural  philosophers  and  inventors 
of  to-day,  Thomas  Edison,  is  credited  with  a  definition  of 
genius,  which  says :  "Genius  consists  of  five  per  cent  inspira- 
tion, and  ninety-five  per  cent  of  perspiration."  Sometimes  I 
think  that,  for  the  average  man,  the  inspiration  is  nil,  and  the 
perspiration  must  be  profuse,  if  he  ever  hopes  to  accomplish 
anything. 

You  gentlemen  have  been  trained  in  a  school  where  before 
aught  else  you  have  been  taught  that  "Manners  maketh  man." 
You  have  acquired  a  manner  of  appreciating  and  reverencing 
the  spiritual  and  eternal  things  which  lie  close  to  man's  heart. 
The  manner  of  dealing  with  the  sacred  and  serious  things  of 
life  has  been  enjoined  upon  you.  Along  with  your  mental  pow- 
ers you  have  not  been  permitted  for  a  moment  to  lose  sight  of 
the  spiritual  and  higher  nature  that  lies  within  you. 

It  is  well,  therefore,  to  consider  where  the  present  physical 
and  industrial  development  leaves  us.  In  inventive  genius  and 
in  mechanical  and  scientific  discovery  it  seems  to  have  sur- 
passed all  previous  epochs.  Indeed  sometimes  we  seem  to  have 
made  so  much  progress  along  purely  material  lines  that  we 
have  lost  sight  of  the  higher  and  nobler  side  of  things.    Often 


MANNERS  MAKETH  MAN  329 

our  very  inventions  and  improvements  have  defeated  their  own 
ends.     An  author,  commenting  on  to-day,  says : 

"Think  of  the  time  saved  by  the  telephone,  the  telegraph,  the 
typewriter,  the  cotton  and  woollen  and  silk  mills,  the  iron  foun- 
dries, the  sewing  machines,  the  mowing  machines,  the  reapers 
and  harvesters,  the  swift  trains,  the  electric  trolleys,  the  sub- 
ways and  automobiles,  the  escalators  and  elevators !  What  a 
vast  volume  of  time  has  been  saved !  Time  that  used  to  be 
wasted,  now  saved  for  man,  and  put  away  where  moth  doth 
not  corrupt,  nor  thieves  break  in  and  steal !  There  is  time 
enough  saved  to  give  every  human  being  an  abundance  of  leis- 
ure !  An  industrial  revolution,  the  miracles  of  modern  ma- 
chinery, millions  of  brains  are  directed  upon  the  problem — all 
having  their  sole  object,  to  save  time ! 

"And  what  is  the  result?  The  result  is  that  men  have  less 
time  nowadays  than  they  ever  have  had  since  the  world  began. 
What  becomes  of  all  the  time  thus  saved — where  does  it  go? 
Except  in  the  country  districts  (where  there  is  no  machinery 
for  saving  time)  there  is  none  to  be  found,  for  every  one  is 
pressed  for  time." 

And  often  the  time  which  we  thus  imagine  to  be  saved  is  not 
put  to  any  good  use.    It  is  merely  expended  to  hurry  on  again. 

"A  Western  farmer,  who  enjoyed  a  calm  moment  at  the  close 
of  a  busy  life,  one  day  reflected  on  his  past  and  discovered  to 
his  consternation  that  he  had  spent  his  existence  in  growing 
corn  to  feed  hogs,  and  sold  hogs  to  buy  more  land  to  grow  more 
corn  to  raise  more  hogs,  and  so  on,  in  an  endless  chain.  Thus 
we  invent  machinery  for  the  purpose  of  saving  time,  in  order 
to  produce  more  things  and  to  get  there  more  quickly,  in  order 
to  save  more  time,  so  as  to  get  more  things  and  to  get  there 
more  quickly,  and  over  again  ad  infinitum." 

Is  this  real  progress?  Is  it  real  education?  Do  these  man- 
ners make  men  ?  True,  it  is  a  piling  up  of  more  material  things  ; 
making  huge  mathematical  results.  But  in  the  end  does  the 
individual  man  get  any  more  real  value  out  of  life  than  his 
fathers  did?  Otherwise  these  manners  do  not  make  man. 
Only  so  much  of  our  material  results  as  contribute  to  the  build- 
ing up  of  a  finer  man,  a  better  country  and  a  more  enlightened 
civilization  can  be  said  to  be  any  real  education,  after  all. 

You  young  gentlemen  who  are  about  to  go  forth  into  the 
world,  equipped  with  a  degree  and  a  diploma,  must  not  imagine 


330  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

that  you  are  very  far  along  the  road  to  learning  and  knowledge 
as  yet.  So  far  you  have  learned  from  books ;  you  have  yet 
to  take  deeper  lessons  in  human  nature  and  human  character. 
And  it  will  require  incessant  work  to  do  it. 

You  have  much  work  to  do — you  know  that  as  well  as  I  can 
tell  you.  First  of  all,  you  have  to  earn  your  own  livelihood. 
Thank  God,  that  our  country  is  one  of  almost  equal  opportuni- 
ties, where  good  and  earnest  work  is  appreciated.  It  will  be  no 
easy  task  for  you  to  do  this,  for  you  must  remember  that  for  a 
long  time  to  come  you  are  only  going  to  a  larger  school  and 
are  continuing  your  lessons  on  a  grander  scale  than  ever  before. 

Then,  if  you  succeed  in  making  for  yourself  a  niche  in 
the  busy,  eager,  rushing  world,  you  will  have  for  the  first  time 
some  leisure  to  consider  what  you  can  do  in  the  larger  lines  of 
human  endeavor. 

To-day  all  around  us  we  have  examples  of  what  undue 
power  and  enormous  aggregations  of  wealth  may  do  and 
what  may  be  feared  from  the  threatened  overturn  of  so- 
ciety and  the  confiscation  of  the  sources  of  wealth.  A  rising 
tide  of  discontent  against  capital  and  wealth  finds  its  most 
outspoken  advocates  in  socialism  and  that  form  of  anarchism 
which  would  utterly  destroy  before  it  attempts  to  rebuild.  In 
their  cry  for  economic  and  social  reform,  these  advocates  go 
so  far  as  to  destroy  the  old  landmarks  of  civilization,  religion 
and  clean  living.  We  cannot  aflford  to  yield  either  to  the  pres- 
sure of  the  one  or  to  the  demands  of  the  other.  If  progress 
is  to  be  made,  it  must  be  made  along  the  lines  of  reconcilia- 
tion. Here,  gentlemen,  is  abundant  work  for  you — a  work 
which  may  well  tax  all  your  resources. 

Then,  again,  you  have  a  third  and  even  nobler  work. 
It  is  that  of  clean  and  helpful  living.  It  is  the  work 
of  the  heart  and  the  soul.  If  you  would  accomplish  great 
things,  think  great  thoughts  and  inspire  great  deeds,  you 
must  begin  with  yourself.  That  is  a  work  that  you  may  do 
simultaneously  with  the  others ;  and  it  will  tell  more  in  the 
end  than  any  other.  There  are  no  men  in  these  United  States 
upon  whom  the  task  of  making  straight  the  paths  of  human 
progress  and  human  culture  should  rest  more  particularly  than 
upon  the  college  graduates.  It  is  the  noblest  aim  they  can  have 
in  life.  The  entry  of  large-minded  college  men,  who  know 
their  faith  and  love  their  country,  into  the  task  of  solving  these 


MANNERS  MAKETH  MAN  331 

difficulties  will  be  one  of  the  greatest  elements  for  good  which 
this  age  can  give. 

Gentlemen  of  the  class  of  1914,  I  welcome  you  as  graduates 
of  this  institution,  for  I  believe  you  have  here  imbibed  the 
^'Manners  which  maketh  man,"  and  that  you  will  prove  your- 
selves good  men  and  true  in  whatsoever  you  may  undertake. 


WOMEN    IN    SCIENCE 

Delivered  at  Mt.  St.  Vincent  on  the  Hudson 

IT  has  been  said  that  the  twentieth  century  has  become, 
in  an  especial  way,  the  woman's  century.  All  forms  of 
feminine  activity  have  started  up  throughout  the  length 
and  breadth  of  our  land.  But  those  who  speak  thus  calmly 
ignore  and  seldom  investigate  what  women  have  done  in  the 
past.  To  you  of  the  graduating  class,  this  cannot  fail  to  be 
of  the  greatest  interest.  You  are  now  prepared  to  exercise 
your  intellectual  activities  and  to  take  part  in  the  social  and 
mental  life  around  you.  Feminine  activities  have  assumed 
myriad  forms — from  seeking  the  suffrage  and  contending  with 
men  in  national  and  municipal  problems  to  exploring  the  waste 
places  of  science  and  all  other  forms  of  human  endeavor  to 
benefit  humanity. 

Not  the  least  of  these  many  activities  for  the  modern  woman 
is  the  steady  growth  of  Catholic  colleges  for  women  through- 
out the  land.  It  has  sometimes  been  made  a  reproach  to  the 
Church  that  she  failed  to  provide  an  adequate  outlet  for  the 
intellectual  activities  of  her  young  womanhood.  The  reproach 
may  have  been  true  a  half-century  ago ;  but  you  and  I  have 
cause  to  know  that  the  reasons  for  such  lack  were  chiefly 
financial  and  not  intellectual. 

A  picture  of  what  the  Church  has  accompHshed  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  should  be  an  augury  and  an  inspiration  for  the 
graduates  of  this  college  to-day.  One  hundred  years  ago 
there  were  but  a  handful  of  Catholics  along  the  fringe  of  sea- 
coast  which  formed  the  American  States  of  that  day,  barely 
enough  to  warrant  the  appointment  of  three  bishops,  with  a 
few  straggling  churches.  But  to-day  we  have  temples  which 
equal  any  in  the  Christian  world,  and,  what  is  more,  they  are 
constantly  filled;  we  have  institutions  of  charity,  education 
and  mercy  throughout  the  land.  These  are  constantly  grow- 
ing and  widening  their  activities  and  influence.  We  are  grow- 
ing apace,  so  that  we  are  reckoned  with  as  one  of  the  greatest 

332 


WOMEN  IN  SCIENCE  333 

— if  not  the  greatest — social  factors  in  good  government  and 
conservative  progress  in  this  fair  land  of  ours. 

The  graduates  of  Catholic  schools  and  colleges,  viewing  the 
moral,  material  and  spiritual  progress  made  by  their  Church 
in  these  United  States,  can  take  heart  for  this  century  of 
hastening  progress,  and  claim  their  own,  as  part  of  the  edu- 
cated and  intellectual  world.  In  doing  so,  it  will  be  no  new 
thing ;  they  will  be  merely  coming  into  their  own  again. 

I  wonder  if  the  graduates  here  recognize  the  magnificent 
record  of  educated  and  intellectual  women  in  the  history  of 
the  Church  and  its  activities.  Of  course,  we  all  know  the 
sainted  women  commemorated  on  the  altar  and  enshrined  in 
legend,  but  it  is  not  often  that  we  recall  the  others  who  were 
renowned  for  their  intellectual  abilities,  as  well  as  the  fact 
that  it  was  only  in  Catholic  countries  and  under  Catholic  rule 
that  women  kept  up  their  intellectual  development  to  the  ut- 
most. Our  expansion  and  revival  of  women's  colleges  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  not  so  new  as  we  think. 

In  the  early  Christian  Rome,  of  the  time  of  St.  Jerome, 
there  was  the  famous  Ecclesia  Domestica,  upon  the  Aventine 
Hill.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest  conventual  homes,  in  which 
were  gathered  some  of  the  most  noble  and  learned  women  of 
the  day.  There  were  the  learned  Marcella,  and  her  compan- 
ions, Paula  and  her  daughter,  Eustochium.  These  women 
were  not  only  acquainted  with  the  Latin  and  Greek  literature 
and  philosophy,  but  became  proficient  in  Hebrew  and  deeply 
versed  in  the  Scriptures.  They  assisted  St.  Jerome  in  his 
translation  of  the  Bible,  which  we  call  the  Vulgate.  In  one 
of  his  letters  he  submitted  his  version  of  the  Books  of  Kings  to 
them  for  criticism,  and  accepted  some  modifications  which  they 
suggested. 

Not  only  did  the  Vulgate  version  of  the  Bible  have  the  as- 
sistance and  criticism  of  these  women  in  its  making,  but  the 
Book  of  Psalms,  recited  in  the  daily  offices  of  the  Church,  is 
for  the  most  part  the  work  of  Paula  and  her  daughter,  Eusto- 
chium. St.  Jerome  dedicated  some  of  his  works  to  them,  say- 
ing: "There  are  people,  O  Paula  and  Eustochium,  who  take 
oflFense  at  seeing  your  names  at  the  beginning  of  my  works." 
So  you  see,  he  appreciated  the  aid  of  women,  even  in  those 
early  days,  and  the  sisters  around  you,  whenever  they  repeat 
the  office,  renew  their  monumental  work. 


334  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

It  was  the  noble  women  of  the  conventual  institutions  who 
kept  alive  the  flame  of  learning  throughout  the  ages  of  the 
Church.  Women  throughout  all  the  ages,  from  the  fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire  to  the  time  of  the  so-called  Reformation, 
were  taught  exactly  as  men  were,  the  same  books,  the  same 
branches  of  learning  and  the  same  intellectual  acquirements. 
They  did  good  solid  work  in  the  convents,  exactly  as  their 
brothers  did  in  cloister  or  college. 

Practically  the  only  schools  for  girls  during  the  Middle 
Ages  were  the  convents.  Here  were  educated  rich  and  poor, 
gentle  and  simple.  Here  they  were  free  from  the  annoyances 
and  dangers  which  menaced  them  often  in  their  own  homes 
and  prevented  their  study. 

Among  the  great  educators  of  the  early  Saxon  times  was 
the  Abbess  St.  Hilda,  of  the  Convent  of  Whitby.  Her  con- 
vent was  known  as  a  centre  of  learning  and  culture.  She  was 
the  one  who  discovered  the  poetical  gifts  of  the  poet  Csedmon. 
Although  he  was  a  serf  and  a  keeper  of  the  cows  in  the  fields, 
she  had  him  taught  to  read  and  developed  his  wonderful  gifts. 
It  was  this  Northumbrian  cow-herd,  transformed  into  a  monk, 
who  sang  the  revolt  of  Satan  and  Paradise  Lost  a  thousand 
years  earlier  than  Milton. 

There  was  also  the  famous  nun  of  Gandersheim,  in  middle 
Germany,  the  Abbess  Hroswitha,  who  lived  in  930.  She  was 
novelist,  dramatist  and  critic.  Her  dramatic  compositions 
are  best  known,  and  how  good  they  were  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  Ellen  Terry  two  years  ago  scored  a  success  in  one  of  them 
in  London.  I  can  bear  personal  witness  to  the  brilliant  Latin 
dialogue  of  a  few  of  them.  She  put  the  most  modest  apology 
to  her  works  for  a  nun  turned  author:  "Let  those  who  are 
not  pleased  with  this  work  remember  that  it  pleased  her  who 
wrote  it." 

And  there  was  Hildegard,  the  Abbess  of  St.  Rupert,  at 
Bingen-on-the-Rhine,  who  lived  during  the  early  Crusades. 
Her  works  on  theology.  Scripture  and  science  make  up  six 
large  octavo  volumes.  Herrad,  the  Superior  of  Hohenburg, 
in  Alsace,  had  the  widest  knowledge,  and  wrote  her  famous 
book,  "Hortus  Deliciarum,"  or  "Garden  of  Delights,"  one  of 
the  first  encyclopedias  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which  was  illus- 
trated by  innumerable  illuminated  miniatures.     It  is  a  picture 


WOMEN  IN  SCIENCE  335 

of  the  knowledge  and  arts  of  her  time  that  cannot  be  sur- 
passed. 

A  non-Catholic  writer,  Mrs.  Putnam,  says  of  this  period  of 
woman's  culture : 

"No  institution  of  Europe  has  ever  won  for  woman  the  free- 
dom and  development  that  she  enjoyed  in  the  convent  in  early 
days.  The  modern  college  for  women  only  feebly  reproduces 
it,  since  the  college  for  women  has  arisen  at  a  time  when  col- 
leges in  general  are  under  a  cloud.  The  lady-abbess,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  part  of  the  two  great  social  forces,  feudalism 
and  the  Church.  She  was  treated  as  an  equal  by  men  of  her 
class,  as  witnessed  by  the  letters  we  have  from  Popes  and  em- 
perors. She  had  the  stimulus  of  competition  with  men  in 
executive  capacity,  in  scholarship,  and  in  artistic  production, 
since  her  work  was  freely  set  before  the  general  public." 

And  this  continued  down  to  the  time  of  the  religious  up- 
heaval which  we  know  as  the  Reformation.  Then  convents 
were  closed  and  often  destroyed,  their  revenue  suppressed  and 
the  nuns  driven  from  the  land.  And  so  the  education  of 
women  came  to  an  end.  A  writer,  describing  the  effects  of 
the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  and  convents,  says :  "The 
destruction  by  Henry  VIII  of  the  conventual  schools,  where 
the  female  population,  the  rich,  as  well  as  the  poor,  found 
their  only  teachers,  was  the  absolute  extinction  of  any  syste- 
matic education  of  women  for  a  long  period." 

The  strangest  and  saddest  result  of  the  suppression  of  the 
convents  was  that  men  profited  by  the  loss  which  women  sus- 
tained. Thus  the  nunnery  of  St.  Radegunde,  with  its  revenues 
and  possessions,  went  to  found  another  college  at  Oxford, 
while  the  convents  of  Bromhall  and  Lillechurch  went  to  found 
another  at  Cambridge.  In  a  few  short  years  the  great  work 
of  centuries  for  women  was  undone,  and  women  were  left 
little  better  educational  facilities  than  when  the  Anglo-Saxon 
nuns  first  began  their  work.  During  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  not  a  school  was  founded  for  the  education  of 
women.  And  the  same  spirit  was  shown  throughout  English 
history.  The  public  schools  of  Boston,  founded  by  the  Puri- 
tans in  1642,  were  not  open  to  girls  until  a  century  and  a  half 
later,  and  then  for  merely  the  elementary  branches  and  for  but 
a  half  year.     Girls  did  not  have  the  benefit  of  a  high  school 


33^  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

education  in  New  England  generally  until  as  late  as  1852 ;  and 
altogether  the  attitude  was  against  their  education. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  Catholic  countries  there  were  no  re- 
strictions upon  the  higher  education  of  women.  Bettina  Goz- 
zadini  occupied  a  professorship  of  law  at  the  University  of 
Bologna,  in  1236,  and  Novilla  d'Andrea  often  acted  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  her  father,  a  professor  of  canon  law  at  the  same 
university.  Shakespeare  makes  Portia  a  lawyer  in  Venice. 
Dorotea  Bucca  lectured  on  medicine  at  Bologna ;  Laura  Cer- 
retti  gave  lectures  on  philosophy.  Fulvia  Olympia  Morati  was 
professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  and  called  from  Italy 
to  the  chair  of  Greek  literature  at  Heidelberg  University. 

In  Spain,  Beatriz  Galindo  was  a  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
the  University  of  Salamanca  in  the  time  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella ;  Francisca  de  Lebrixa,  professor  of  history  and 
rhetoric  in  the  University  of  Alcala,  and  Isabella  Losa,  of 
Cordova,  taught  Greek  and  Hebrew. 

One  of  the  great  mathematicians  of  Italy  was  Maria  Gaetana 
Agnesi,  who  was  born  in  Milan,  in  1718,  and  died  there  at  eigh- 
ty-one years  of  age.  Her  monumental  work  was  "Le  institu- 
zioni  Analitiche" — a  treatise  in  two  large  volumes  on  differ- 
ential and  integral  calculus.  Pope  Benedict  XIV  paid  her  sig- 
nal honor.  He  caused  her,  of  his  own  accord,  to  be  appointed 
professor  of  higher  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Bologna, 
but  she  refused  to  leave  Milan,  and  became  towards  the  end 
of  her  life  a  sister  of  charity  devoted  to  hospital  work. 

The  first  woman  to  occupy  a  chair  of  physics  in  a  university 
was  Laura  Maria  Bassi.  She  was  born  in  Bologna,  in  171 1, 
and  besides  her  native  Italian  was  proficient  in  Latin  and 
French.  Her  knowledge  of  physics  was  shown  in  a  public 
disputation  and  demonstration  at  which  Pope  Benedict  XIV 
was  present.  The  University  of  Bologna  not  only  made  her 
professor,  but  coined  and  presented  her  with  a  medal  contain- 
ing her  effigy.  She  corresponded  with  nearly  all  the  great 
scholars  of  Europe,  and  was  earnestly  besought  by  Voltaire  to 
advocate  his  election  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  She  was 
deeply  religious  and  was  as  pious  as  she  was  intelligent,  at- 
tending Mass  and  her  church  duties  with  regularity.  She  was 
the  mother  of  twelve  children,  and  never  permitted  her  scien- 
tific and  literary  work  to  interfere  with  her  domestic  duties. 
At  all  times  she  had  firm  friends  in  the  Pope  and  in  the  Arch- 


WOMEN  IN  SCIENCE  337 

bishop  of  Bologna,  both  of  whom  advocated  her  advancement. 

In  Salerno,  Giovanna  Trotula  was  professor  of  medicine  at 
the  University  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  wrote  a  work  upon  the 
diseases  of  women,  even  yet  referred  to ;  while  Francesca  Ro- 
mana,  of  the  same  place,  became  one  of  the  greatest  physicians 
and  surgeons  of  the  fourteenth  century.  There  was  no  prohi- 
bition against  women  attaining  eminence  in  the  medical  or 
surgical  world  in  Catholic  Italy,  as  is  curiously  shown  by  a 
decree  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV,  saying  that :  "No  man  or  woman, 
whether  Christian  or  Jew,  shall  presume  to  treat  the  human 
body,  unless  a  master  or  licentiate  in  medicine."  {Nemo,  mas- 
culiis  aut  foemina,  &c.) 

Maria  dalle  Donne,  of  peasant  birth,  gained  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Medicine,  summa  cum  laude,  in  the  University  of 
Bologna,  and  became  a  professor  in  the  University,  holding 
her  chair  there  until  she  died,  in  1842.  Yet  Miss  Elizabeth 
Blackwell,  here  in  America,  some  seven  years  after  the  death 
of  Maria  dalle  Donne,  desired  to  study  medicine  and  applied 
in  vain  to  nearly  one  dozen  American  medical  institutions, 
which  refused  to  take  her  as  a  student.  Finally  she  was  re- 
ceived, nearly  eight  years  afterwards,  by  a  small  college  in 
Geneva,  N.  Y.  In  Great  Britain,  every  medical  institution  re- 
fused to  receive  Miss  Sophia  Blake  as  a  student,  and  when 
she  finally  obtained  admission  to  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
the  students  mobbed  her.  A  half-dozen  young  Irishmen 
among  the  students  came  to  her  rescue,  and  afterwards  be- 
came her  bodyguard,  escorting  her  to  and  from  lectures.  This 
is  how  women  students,  seekers  after  higher  education,  have 
been  treated  in  their  search  for  knowledge,  in  lands  not  under 
the  genial  and  progressive  traditions  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

With  these  examples  before  you,  and  I  could  give  you  many 
more,  you  will  see  that  you  are  only  coming,  as  Catholic 
women,  once  more  into  your  own  heritage.  The  expansion  of 
education  for  women  is  after  all  only  a  return  to  the  condition 
of  things  as  it  existed  before  the  breaking  away  of  the  nations 
from  the  Faith. 

It  therefore  behooves  you,  as  the  graduates  of  this  College, 
to  see  that  you  avail  yourself  of  your  return  to  the  proper 
realm  of  educated  womanhood.  You  will  have  to  work  hard 
to  do  so.  You  remember  the  definition  of  genius  which  is 
attributed  to  Edison.    He  is  credited  with  saying  that  "genius 


338  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

is  five  per  cent  inspiration  and  ninety-five  per  cent  perspira- 
tion." In  other  words,  no  matter  what  God-given  gifts  you 
may  possess,  you  must  work  terribly  hard  to  get  the  most  out 
of  them.  Work  and  incessant  work  at  an  idea  or  a  theory, 
is  the  only  way  to  develop  it  or  to  develop  yourself.  Careful 
and  exact  work  is  the  greatest  thing  needed  in  the  world  to- 
day, and  you  ought  to  take  your  share  in  it. 

There  is  much  for  the  educated  woman  to  do  in  the  field  of 
sociology,  philanthropy  and  good  government.  Most  of  the 
writers  and  experimenters  of  to-day  leave  out  of  their  calcu- 
lations in  these  spheres  the  influence  and  power  of  religion. 
Their  ideas  for  the  betterment  of  the  world  make  a  creedless, 
prayerless  and  almost  beliefless  reconstruction  of  the  relation 
of  man  to  his  fellow-man.  They  aim  to  have  statistics,  eco- 
nomics and  the  card-index  take  the  place  of  faith,  hope  and 
charity.  It  may  be  within  your  province  to  illumine  all  these 
questions  by  showing  the  true  position  and  the  teaching  of  the 
Church  regarding  them.  At  any  rate,  you  have  a  noble  equip- 
ment with  which  to  go  forth  into  the  world,  and  to  take  your 
place  among  the  workers  and  scholars  in  the  myriad  ways 
which  the  field  of  knowledge  opens  up  to  you. 

You  have  the  opportunity  in  this  twentieth  century  to  renew 
again  the  magnificent  showing  which  Catholic  women  schol- 
ars, teachers  and  professors  made  in  the  past.  You  can  rise 
to  as  great  eminence  as  they ;  in  doing  so  you  will  be  only  liv- 
ing up  to  the  great  traditions  of  your  history ;  and  there  is  now 
no  barrier  here  to  forbid  you  doing  so,  for  in  this  latest  of 
centuries  woman  has  had  again  thrown  open  to  her  the  oppor- 
tunity of  learning  and  achievement  which  she  always  enjoyed 
under  Catholic  auspices.  That  the  class  of  1914  may  do  so, 
and  that  its  success  may  inspire  coming  classes  to  emulate 
and  surpass  it,  is  my  fervent  wish  for  you  as  graduates  of  this 
College. 

May  every  one  of  you  attain  a  success  of  which  Catholic 
womanhood  may  well  be  proud. 


ADDRESS   TO   THE  GRADUATES  OF 

THE  COLLEGE  OF  NEW 

ROCHELLE,  1911 

IT  is  with  much  diffidence  that  I  presume  to  address  so 
many  young  ladies  invested  with  the  degree  which  marks 
their  separation  from  college  life.  My  own  graduation 
still  stands  out  so  clearly  before  me  that  I  hardly  believe  that 
I  am  in  that  fit  perspective  from  which  I  could  safely  address 
words  of  salutary  instruction  to  others  who  have  assumed  the 
hood  and  received  the  diploma.  When  a  scholar  steps  forth 
from  the  college  halls  to  take  up  her  position  either  in  the 
world  of  learning  or  in  that  busier  world  of  every-day  life,  it 
is  with  a  triumphant  feeling  somewhat  akin  to  conquest.  One 
exults  almost  as  in  the  winning  of  a  hard-fought  game  of  ath- 
letic skill,  in  the  feeling  of  mastery  achieved  over  difficult  and 
abstruse  subjects.  With  the  feeling  that  the  goal  has  been 
reached,  it  seems  almost  as  though  it  were  a  misnomer — even 
a  mockery — to  call  it  a  "Commencement,"  when  in  reality  you 
have  finished  your  course  and  reached  the  goal  of  study  aimed 
at  for  four  long  years.  And  when  the  parting  comes  during 
this  week  it  seems  an  ending  after  all.  What  does  it  matter 
that  learned  philologists  tell  us  that  it  is  really  a  "Commence- 
ment"— that  you  commence  to  be  persons  of  degree  and  begin 
to  take  upon  yourselves  the  honors  of  the  learned  world — yet 
down  in  your  hearts  you  look  upon  it  as  the  end  and  the  cul- 
mination of  your  college  life.  But  while  it  rings  down  the 
curtain  upon  the  old  familiar  scenes,  it  is  really  the  awaken- 
ing to  a  newer  and  a  broader  life  in  the  realm  of  letters  and 
learning. 

And  so  the  day  of  such  conquest  has  come  to  each  of  you 
in  turn,  and  as  the  young  women  of  the  Class  of  191 1,  who 
have  done  your  duty  faithfully,  you  must  now  put  your  studies 
to  active  use  and  pursue  still  further  the  roads  upon  which 
you  have  entered  in  the  kingdom  of  knowledge.  If  you  did 
not  do  this,  you  would  be  untrue  to  the  traditions  of  your  col- 

339 


340  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

lege  and  the  earnest  teaching  of  your  professors.  There  is  an 
obvious  mission  for  the  CathoHc  college  woman  in  the  world, 
even  aside  from  her  womanly  duties  and  such  vocation  as  she 
may  embrace.  Her  womanhood  should  be  exulted  in,  and  its 
cultivation  be  the  crowning  thought  and  glory  of  her  life.  But 
as  she  has  received  the  light,  so  also  should  she  dispense  the 
light  around  her  path  throughout  the  world.  You  are,  even 
more  than  the  Vestal  Virgins  of  ancient  Rome,  the  keepers  of 
the  sacred  fire,  and  you  should  ever  guard  that  fire  of  learning 
and  faith  and  see  to  it  that  its  flames  mount  ever  higher  and 
higher.  As  you  have  received  from  your  Alma  Mater,  so 
should  you  in  turn  give  to  others. 

This  very  fact  forbids  you  as  graduates  to  stand  still. 
Simply  that  you  have  arrived  at  this  day  of  triumph  does  not 
mean  that  you  should  put  any  brake  upon  your  forward  move- 
ment. I  do  not  believe  that  one  of  you  would  for  a  moment 
rest  content  to  be  merely  satisfied  in  an  easy,  caressing  manner 
with  the  Baccalaureate  degree,  as  though  it  were  a  particular 
gem  or  curio,  and  therefore  a  sufficient  possession  for  all  time. 
It  must  be  turned  to  advantage,  it  must  be  added  to,  and  it 
must  be  made  useful  to  the  possessor  and  to  those  around  her. 

As  I  have  said,  I  believe  there  is  an  obvious  mission  for  the 
Catholic  college  woman,  and  I  believe  that  just  now  the  field 
for  the  exercise  of  that  mission  looms  larger  than  ever  before. 
It  is  particularly  so,  because  just  now  there  are,  comparatively 
speaking,  so  few  Catholic  college  women,  and  so  many  places 
where  their  learning  and  their  womanhood  combined  can  be 
displayed  to  such  advantage. 

Just  now  we  are  in  the  expansive  age  of  the  Church  in  the 
United  States,  and  it  is  precisely  in  this  age  that  there  is  so 
much. constructive  work  for  them  to  do.  It  is  in  this  niche  of 
the  great  fabric  of  the  Church  where  they  can  nowadays  fit- 
tingly place  themselves  with  the  happiest  results. 

Consider  for  a  moment  just  what  the  history  of  the  Church 
in  these  United  States  has  been  within  the  more  than  a  cen- 
tury and  a  quarter  of  its  active  and  actual  existence.  Begin- 
ning at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  with  a  handful  of 
clergy  and  a  few  thousand  of  the  laity — misunderstood,  pos- 
sessing but  the  most  meager  of  civic  rights,  without  learning, 
position  or  wealth  among  their  members,  save  a  great  name 
here  and  there — they  struggled  on  through  difficulty  and  op- 


NEW  ROCHELLE  ADDRESS  341 

position.     Then,  note  the  rise  through  the  nineteenth  century 
to  the  present  time.    In  the  earUer  part  of  the  last  century  the 
almost  starving  Irish,  untrained  and  unlettered,  came  as  ex- 
ponents of  an  already  depreciated,  if  not  despised,  form  of 
faith ;  and  cultured  opponents  of  Catholicity  pointed  to  them 
with  their  peasant  habits  and  general  ignorance,  as  samples  of 
what  the  Catholic  Church  brought  forth  in  lands  where  her 
doctrines  reigned  supreme.  Then  there  were  no  splendid  temples 
here  in  which  Our  Lord  was  worshipped  on  resplendent  altars 
and  where  music,  painting  and  sculpture  might  show  forth  to 
the  most  listless  observer  the  culture  with  which  the  Catholic 
Church  had  always  surrounded  Him.     Nay,  even  the  worship- 
pers themselves  were  far  from  edifying  in  those  earlier  days. 
Congregations  and  churches  defied  both  priest  and  bishop,  and 
scandals  broke  out  sometimes  upon  the  smallest  provocation. 
It  seemed  to  justify  everything  that  our  opponents  could  in- 
vent to  fling  at  us,  and  it  was  succeeded  by  the  first  attempts 
of  an  active,  bitter  persecution.     Conceive  if  you  can  now- 
adays, an  unlettered,  poverty-stricken,  hard-working  minority, 
persecuted   throughout   these   Atlantic   States   by   those   who 
thought  they  were  doing  their  country  service  in  suppressing 
— if  not  oppressing — the  adherents  of  the  oldest  faith  in  the 
Christian  world.     Perhaps  it  only  needed  a  touch  of  persecu- 
tion to  weld  the  Catholic  body  closer  together  and  to  bring 
them  in  better  alignment  with  their  spiritual  superiors.    At  any 
rate,  they  made  marvelous  progress.     The  century  just  passed 
is  a  hundred  years  of  glory.     Churches,  the  peers  of  any  in 
Christendom,  have  sprung  up  all  over  the  land;  schools  and 
colleges    (such  as  this  one  wherein  I   speak)    have  banished 
the  unlettered   ignorance  of  the  people  and  have  intensified 
their  faith;  institutions  of  mercy  and  charity  on  every  hand 
have  shown  the  Catholic  heart  to  be  the  peer,  if  not  the  su- 
perior, of  any  others  in  this  broad  land.     To-day  at  least  we 
are    coming    into    our    own,    and    the    magnificent    Universal 
Church  of  God  has  put  on  here  in  this  land  of  freedom  the 
robes  of  brightness  and  glory  that  belong  to  her  as  the  Bride 
of  Christ  and  the  heir  of  the  ages,  so  as  to  be  known  and 
acknowledged  of  all  men. 

Along  with  it  has  come  the  falling  away  of  the  many  shackles 
which  stood  between  Catholics  and  their  civic  rights.  State 
after  State  amended  their  constitutions  until  now  there  is  no 


342  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

longer  upon  any  statute  book  anything  to  prevent  a  growth  to 
our  full  stature  as  free  men  of  this  great  country.  As  the 
heavy  mists  fade  out  before  the  glowing  rays  of  the  rising 
sun,  each  age-long  relic  of  prejudice  and  hatred  dissolves  into 
nothingness,  and  the  American  who  professes  the  Catholic 
Faith  has  at  last  become  in  every  sense  the  peer  of  his  fellow- 
man. 

This  was  not  all  accomplished  suddenly  or  without  toil  and 
struggle.  It  was  not  due  particularly  to  the  native  recognition 
of  the  fellow-man  or  woman  of  a  different  creed.  Otherwise 
the  path  onward  and  forward  would  not  have  been  so  thorny. 
It  was  due  to  the  persistent  influx  of  a  Catholic  people,  who, 
amid  all  the  stress  and  struggle,  kept  true  to  the  direction 
pointed  by  their  Faith,  and  who  by  their  earnestness  and  single- 
heartedness  won  recognition  for  themselves  among  their  fel- 
low-citizens. We  have  impressed  upon  our  fellow-men  of 
other  faiths,  or  of  no  faith  at  all,  that  we  Catholics  intend  to 
be  whole-souled  and  energetic  members  of  this  Commonwealth 
and  still  greater  land,  that  we  intend  to  march  in  the  van  of 
all  that  is  to  the  interest  of  State  and  people,  and  that  we 
declare  boldly  our  faith  in  this  land  and  its  people,  in  its  insti- 
tutions and  its  progress,  and  in  it  as  the  everlasting  witness 
of  the  watchfulness  of  God  Almighty  over  the  destinies  of 
man. 

The  blossoming  out  of  our  Church  and  people  in  this  great 
Republic  of  the  West  has  been  a  miracle  of  grace  and  an  "ex- 
altation of  them  of  low  degree."  When  we  contrast  the  posi- 
tion now  with  the  position  one  hundred  years  ago,  or  even 
later  than  that,  our  hearts  must  go  up  to  God  with  feel- 
ings of  gratitude.  But  our  task  is  not  finished,  such  a  glorious 
reminiscence  is  but  the  "commencement,"  just  as  yours  is  to- 
day. Here  is  where  our  work  must  begin ;  here  is  where  we 
must  make  strong  the  glorious  beginnings  I  have  but  recited. 
If  the  past  century  was  one  of  growth,  one  of  foundation  and 
of  establishment,  so  must  the  coming  century  be  one  of  ex- 
pansion and  of  achievement.  If  our  fathers  could  do  so  much 
with  such  slender  materials,  what  ought  we  not  do  with  the 
wealth  of  mental,  educational  and  material  development  which 
we  have  at  hand? 

It  is  precisely  at  this  point  that  the  mission  of  the  Catho- 
lic college  woman  comes  into  play.     Remember  that  all  this 


NEW  ROCHELLE  ADDRESS  343 

growth  of  the  past  century  was  made  without  the  material, 
intellectual  and  moral  assistance  which  a  keen,  alert  and  splen- 
didly educated  womanhood  could  have  given.  I  do  not  intend 
to  underrate  the  magnificent  qualities  and  services  rendered 
by  the  members  of  the  devoted  sisterhoods  whose  efforts  in  the 
past  made  possible  the  founding  of  colleges  like  this.  At  any 
rate,  they  were  in  the  minority  among  a  vast  lay  womanhood 
whose  strong  weapons  were  their  prayers  and  their  unswerv- 
ing Faith.  But  now  that  we  have  the  college  woman,  her 
field  of  duty — aside  from  her  direct  duty  to  herself  and  her 
family — lies  straight  before  her.  She  can  make  the  future 
even  more  glorious  than  the  past.  Her  mental  equipment,  her 
training  and  her  environment  render  her  capable  of  doing  so. 

When  a  young  woman  goes  forth  from  a  Catholic  college, 
where  the  Faith  has  been  taught  as  well  as  the  binomial  theo- 
rem or  conic  sections,  where  physics  and  Christian  ethics  have 
not  been  kept  apart,  where  the  Latin  of  Cicero  has  been  min- 
gled with  the  Latin  of  liturgy,  where  prayer  and  devotion  have 
been  as  usual  as  study  and  recitation,  she  is  apt  to  find  a  some- 
what cynical  learned  world  around  her.  It  will  not  be  an  anti- 
Catholic  atmosphere — nothing  hardly  so  impolite  as  that — for 
one  must,  you  know,  in  these  days  of  culture  and  appreciation, 
readily  acknowledge  the  vast  treasures  of  art,  music  and  beauty 
which  the  Church  created  and  fostered,  but  it  will  be  an  un- 
Catholic  atmosphere  varying  all  the  way  from  doubt  to  amused 
pity.  It  will  be  somewhat  akin  to  an  expression  which  might 
be  used  if  one  were  suddenly  to  find  an  enthusiast  who  believed 
in  the  ancient  heathen  gods  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  ex- 
pression will  be  almost  as  if  one  might  well  admire  the  classic 
statues  of  antiquity  and  glory  in  them,  but  pity  the  unfortu- 
nate who  in  these  days  should  render  worship  to  Jupiter,  Mars 
or  Juno,  or  any  of  the  other  gods  of  Olympus.  It  is  this  un- 
conscious, half-veiled  attitude  of  mind  which  will  meet  the 
Catholic  girl  graduate  when  she  leaves  college  and  mingles 
among  her  equals  in  academic  honors.  Sometimes  it  goes  as 
far  as  direct  hostility  to  and  malevolent  misunderstanding  of 
our  teachings. 

You  have  all  heard  the  story  of  the  Parisian  quack  doctor, 
who,  mounted  upon  a  pedestal  in  the  midst  of  the  listening 
crowd,  was  extolling  the  extraordinary  virtues  of  the  remedy 
which  he  offered  for  sale.     After  many  descriptions  of  the 


344  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

changes  wrought  by  modern  medical  science,  and  the  cures 
effected  by  discarding  the  old  methods,  he  concluded  one  of 
his  rhapsodies  about  the  ailments  of  the  heart  by  vehemently 
clasping  his  right  side.  A  bystander  cried  out:  "That's 
wrong;  the  heart  is  not  over  there!"  But  the  quack,  not  a 
whit  abashed,  quickly  rejoined:  "Vous  avez  tort;  nous  avons 
change  tout  cela !"  and  never  admitted  his  mistake. 

It  is  this  attitude  of  having  changed  everything  in  philos- 
ophy and  science,  in  ethics  and  history,  in  the  whole  outlook 
upon  the  world,  which  will  meet  the  Catholic  woman  graduate 
at  the  very  outset.  It  is  this  attitude  which  her  learning  and 
her  genius  must  learn  to  combat.  It  is  she  who  must  put  the 
heart  back  into  its  right  place.  She  can  best  employ  her  tal- 
ents in  setting  things  in  their  true  perspective. 

And  she  will  find  this  no  easy  thing  to  do.  An  attitude  of 
this  kind  is  not  frankly  hostile  to  the  Church  and  Church 
teachings,  and  it  has  no  lines  drawn  up  in  battle  array.  There- 
fore, it  will  be  all  the  harder  to  combat,  especially  hard  from 
an  intellectual  standpoint,  because  no  specific  attack  is  made. 
To-day  we  have  arotmd  us  a  neo-paganism,  which  grows  subtly 
in  the  general  culture  of  to-day.  It  is  wholly  indifferent  to 
anything  pertaining  to  the  authority  of  divine  revelation.  In 
its  mildest,  most  innocuous  form  it  takes  the  shape  of  the  study 
of  comparative  religion,  in  its  most  energetic,  that  of  positivism 
and  monism.  It  does  not  waste  itself  upon  the  differences  of 
creeds  or  dogmatic  teachings.  They  are  rather  the  clothes,  so 
to  speak,  worn  by  the  different  individuals.  But  why  be  the 
devotees  of  fashion  at  all?  Why  not  be  the  primitive  man  and 
woman,  and  let  all  the  elemental  passions  and  forces  of  human 
nature  have  their  play!  It  is  this  tendency,  touched  up  and 
gilded  by  a  thousand  arts  of  learning  which  the  Catholic  col- 
lege graduate  will  find  around  her  in  the  social  and  literary 
world.  They  will  understand  your  deep  feeling  for  the  "Im- 
maculate Conception"  of  Murillo,  or  the  "Madonna  del  Sedia" 
of  Raphael,  but  they  cannot  understand  your  recital  of  the 
rosary  or  the  stations  of  the  cross. 

Everywhere  the  chief  teaching  of  the  day  will  be  found  to  con- 
sist of  some  form  of  materialism  or  utilitarianism.  Once  upon 
a  time  we  called  a  lack  of  the  divine  revelation  of  God  to 
man  and  of  the  sublime  knowledge  of  God,  by  its  Latin  name, 
"ignorance,"  and  we  spoke  of  a  man  being  saved  despite  the 


NEW  ROCHELLE  ADDRESS  345 

fact  he  knew  not  the  light,  by  reason  of  his  invincible  ignor- 
ance. Nowadays,  however,  the  world  has  grown  lightly  proud 
of  its  ignorance  of  God,  and  has  translated  it  into  the  Greek, 
and  called  it  "agnosticism."  Frequently  the  term  "agnostic" 
is  heard  almost  as  though  it  were  a  term  denoting  princely 
rank. 

Being  agnostic,  the  modern  disciple  of  the  learned  arts  cul- 
tivates necessarily   what  is   material,   and   devotes  herself   to 
what  is  utilitarian.    And  the  same  spirit  filtering  down  through 
the  masses  and  into  the  business  world  puts  these  two  things 
frankly  to  the  fore.     Once  they  were  seemingly  prepared  to 
accept  the  views  of  the  Church  in  regard  to  sin  and  the  moral- 
ity of  human  acts.    Nowadays  they  are  reckoned  at  their  ma- 
terial value  and  dealt  with  in  so  far  as  they  can  fill  a  scheme 
of  general  utility.    For  instance,  we  were  taught  that  the  evil 
of  crime  lay  in  its  sinfulness,  but  now  a  leading  magazine  has 
alarming  headlines  and  a  telling  article  upon  "The  Cost  of 
Crime."     When  the  merchant  or  the  city  budget  finds  crime 
as  a  liability  or  a  debt  in  the  balance  sheet,  then  crime  is  very 
wrong,   indeed.     That  it   imperils   immortal   souls   is   a   light 
thing ;  that  it  puts  material  pocket-books  in  danger  is  a  serious 
matter.     Temperance  and  right  living  were  taught  as  virtues 
in  the  old-fashioned  manner  of  the  saints;  to-day  essays  are 
written  upon  the  "Cost  of  Disease,"  and  the  whole  matter  is 
viewed  from  the  utilitarian  standpoint  of  the  book-keeper.    In 
the  end,  morality  seems  to  come  down  to  a  sort  of  trial  bal- 
ance to  ascertain  just  how  much  wrong-doing  will  come  to  in 
hard  cash. 

The  same  tone  of  life  is  shown  in  that  most  insistent  form 
of  appeal  to  us  in  every  place  where  we  may  be — the  omni- 
present advertisement.  Take  the  advertising  pages  of  any 
magazine  (there  are  a  few  exceptions),  the  posters  on  wall 
and  car  space,  and  see  how  insistently  they  preach  the  gospel 
of  utilitarianism  and  materialism  expressed  in  money.  Even 
the  institutions  of  learning,  the  correspondence  schools,  the 
business  colleges,  and  all  those  who  profess  in  advertisement 
to  put  cheap  and  speedy  knowledge  into  action,  preach  the 
single  doctrine  of  gaining  more  money.  Doubtless  gainful 
occupation  is  something  we  should  strive  for.  But  it  is,  after 
all,  merely  a  means — and  not  an  end,  like  these  vociferous  ad- 
vertisements proclaim  on  every  side.    In  a  little  while  the  iron 


346  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

will  enter  the  soul,  and  the  ill-trained  mind  will  think  in  dol- 
lars and  cents,  will  become  so  utilitarian  that  the  only  test  of 
all  things  will  be :  "What  is  there  in  it  for  me ;  what  can  I 
get  out  of  it  for  myself?"  It  is  this  attitude  of  mind,  perhaps 
not  so  frankly  exhibited,  which  the  CathoUc  college  woman 
will  meet  on  leaving  the  halls  where  she  received  her  learning. 

There  is  consequently  always  a  need  for  a  lay  apostolate  of 
learning  which  the  college  graduate  can  fill.  Young  women 
who  know  the  position  and  attitude  of  the  Catholic  Church 
upon  the  countless  questions  of  the  day,  or  who  have  the 
means  of  ascertaining  with  ease  and  exactness  such  attitude, 
have  a  duty  cast  upon  them  of  championing  the  truth  of  what 
they  have  learned.  It  is  incredible  that,  even  from  a  historical 
standpoint,  an  organization  which  has  lasted  for  two  thou- 
sand years,  like  the  Catholic  Church,  and  which  has  pro- 
foundly stamped  her  impress  upon  the  history,  literature,  laws 
and  customs  of  every  civilized  people,  should  be  ignored  and 
misunderstood  by  those  who  are  not  of  her.  If  we  were  con- 
sidering merely  the  history  and  art  of  ancient  Egypt,  as  re- 
vealed in  the  papyrus,  the  hieroglyphic  and  the  temple,  a 
scholar  would  blush  not  to  set  aright  erroneous  impressions 
and  mistaken  ideas  if  he  had  the  knowledge  and  the  means  of 
doing  so.  And  a  scholar  who  loved  the  subject  he  studied 
would  be  proud  to  add  whatever  he  could  to  set  human  knowl- 
edge aright  in  that  regard.  If  such  an  attitude  can  be  main- 
tained toward  a  civilization  which  was  dead  ages  ago,  what 
shall  we  say  should  be  the  attitude  of  a  Catholic  graduate 
toward  the  living,  pulsing  personality  of  the  Catholic  Church 
which  has  dominated  the  civilization  of  twenty  centuries? 

This  century  is  the  century  of  expansion,  and  you  must  be 
factors  in  the  growth  and  expansion.  Our  material  growth 
as  Catholics  is  approaching  a  climax,  very  much  as  a  tree  or  a 
flower  assumes  its  maximum  growth.  But  now  has  come  the 
time  when  the  growth  of  the  Church,  like  that  of  the  tree  or 
flower,  must  result  in  blossom  and  fruit.  Aside  from  the 
spiritual  and  moral  fruits  of  perfection  in  God's  law,  there  is 
no  greater  fruit  than  that  of  intellectual  development.  It  is  to 
this  task  that  you,  as  graduates  of  this  College  of  New  Ro- 
chelle,  should  address  yourselves.  You  are  a  part  of  this  era 
of  expansion ;  you  must  have  some  glorious  part  in  the  devel- 
opment of  this  great  "City  of  God"  during  the  present  century, 


NEW  ROCHELLE  ADDRESS  347 

and  must  be  of  those  who  shall  make  plain  the  way  to  those 
who  stand  intellectually  outside  the  Light  which  enlighteneth 
the  world.  We  say  again  and  again  in  the  Creed:  "I  believe 
in  one  holy  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church,"  and  we  should 
prove  our  Faith  by  showing  to  the  world,  both  learned  and  un- 
learned, the  beauty,  the  truth  and  the  Catholicity  of  that  Faith, 
and  show  its  adaptation  to  the  twentieth  century  as  fully  as 
to  any  century  that  ever  preceded  it. 

The  championship  of  what  you  feel  and  what  you  have 
learned  within  these  walls  is  not  and  need  not  be  incompatible 
with  the  other  duties  in  life.  The  Class  of  191 1,  and  the  classes 
which  will  succeed  it,  have  both  the  knowledge  and  the  tact 
to  be  effective  upon  the  appropriate  occasion,  and  they  can  go 
forth  into  the  world  crowned  with  their  scholastic  honors, 
proud  to  be  of  service  to  their  Alma  Mater,  to  their  profes- 
sors who  taught  them  right  thinking  and  effective  expression, 
and  to  the  Church  whose  history  they  can  proudly  celebrate, 
and  whose  expansion  and  acceptance  throughout  the  present 
century  in  this  land  they  can  earnestly  further  and  assist. 
Thus  you  will  really  "commence"  to  be  true  citizens  in  the 
realm  of  letters,  for  thus  you  will  render  the  noblest  service 
to  yourselves  and  to  your  country. 

I  wish  the  Class  of  191 1  all  success,  honor  and  happiness 
in  everything  they  undertake. 


ADDRESS   TO  THE   GRADUATES  OF 
GEORGETOWN  UNIVERSITY,  1911 

IN  coming  before  you,  after  so  much  has  been  said,  I  feel 
that  in  some  way  I  am  merely  delaying  you  in  the  final 
event  of  your  scholastic  life.  You  are  now  eager  to  be 
up  and  doing,  and  no  one  can  really  say  lasting  things  upon 
this  day  of  joyous  farewells.  When  a  scholar  steps  forth  from 
the  college  halls  to  take  up  his  position,  either  in  the  world  of 
learning  or  in  that  busier  world  of  everyday  life,  it  is  with  a 
triumphant  feeling  somewhat  akin  to  conquest.  One  exults 
almost  as  in  the  winning  of  a  hard-fought  game  of  athletic 
skill  with  the  glorious  feeling  of  mastery  achieved  over  diffi- 
cult and  abstruse  subjects. 

With  the  feeling  that  the  goal  has  been  reached,  it  seems 
almost  as  though  it  were  a  misnomer — perhaps  even  a  mock- 
ery— to  call  it  a  "Commencement,"  when  in  reality  you  have 
finished  your  course  and  have  reached  the  goal  of  study  aimed 
at  for  so  many  years.  When  the  parting  from  old  classmates, 
from  the  familiar  scenes  around  you,  comes  during  this  week, 
it  seems  that  it  is  an  ending  after  all.  What  does  it  matter 
that  learned  philologists  tell  us  that  it  is  really  a  *'commence- 
ment,"  that  you  now  commence  to  be  persons  of  degree  and 
begin  to  take  on  yourselves  the  honors  of  the  learned  world — 
for  down  in  your  hearts  you  look  upon  it  as  the  culmination  of 
your  college  life.  You  say  farewell  to  the  old  classrooms,  the 
"Walks,"  the  athletic  field,  your  comrades  and  professors,  and 
there  is  after  all  a  sense  of  coming  to  an  end  instead  of  be- 
ginning. Yet  while  the  day  rings  down  the  curtain  upon  old 
scenes,  it  is  really  the  awakening  to  a  newer  and  a  broader 
life  in  the  realm  of  letters  and  usefulness. 

The  day  of  final  conquest  has  now  come  to  each  of  you,  and 
you  must  now  put  your  studies  into  active  use  and  pursue 
still  further  the  roads  upon  which  you  have  entered  in  the 
kingdom  of  knowledge.     If  you  did  not  do  this  earnestly  and 

348 


GEORGETOWN  ADDRESS  349 

faithfully  you  would  be  untrue  to  the  traditions  of  your  col- 
lege and  the  teaching  of  your  professors.  Your  graduation 
must  be  turned  to  account ;  it  must  be  added  to  and  made 
useful,  both  to  the  possessor  and  to  those  around  him.  The 
college  man  must  progress,  if  anything,  somewhat  more  than 
those  who  have  not  had  his  advantages,  if  his  study  and  his 
development  are  to  be  of  any  avail. 

A  man  must,  if  he  is  to  accomplish  anything  in  this  world — 
anything  beyond  the  mere  necessities  of  food,  raiment  and 
shelter,  and  sometimes  they  mean  a  multitude  of  things — 
keep  true  to  his  ideals,  to  the  high  standard  which  he  sets  him- 
self. Of  course,  in  the  hurly-burly,  the  stress  and  strain  of 
life,  one  is  somewhat  like  a  ship  in  the  sea ;  a  point  or  so  is 
lost  from  the  true  course  of  life,  but  an  earnest  active  mind, 
like  a  careful  helmsman,  will  bring  himself  back  to  his  true 
course  again.  The  motto  of  Georgetown  University, 
which  is  emblazoned  on  its  shield,  "utraque  unum" — two 
blended  in  one — is  like  that  of  this  country,  a  great  one. 
Perhaps  many  of  us  are  not  aware  that  the  words  of  this 
motto  are  found  in  the  great  Antiphon  sung  by  the  Church  in 
Advent,  on  December  22,  when  the  cry  of  eager  expectation 
is :  "O  King  of  the  nations,  yea,  and  the  desire  thereof ;  O 
Corner  Stone,  who  blendest  two  in  one  (qui  facis  utraque 
unum)  ;  come  to  save  man  whom  Thou  hast  made  of  the  dust 
of  the  earth !"  It  sounds  the  keynote  of  all  true  progress  here 
on  earth ;  the  blending  of  the  divine  with  the  human ;  the 
mingling  of  the  spiritual  with  the  material  in  every  effort  of 
man  to  go  forward.  It  has  not  only  been  the  motto  of  this 
University ;  it  has  been  the  very  warp  and  woof  of  its  teach- 
ing. You  and  I  who  have  just  received  its  degrees  can  testify 
that  while  it  has  evoked  the  mental  and  intellectual  powers  of 
the  mind  and  has  taught  us  to  use  all  our  natural  gifts,  it  has 
at  the  same  time  never  lost  sight  for  a  moment  of  the  spiritual 
and  higher  nature  that  lies  within  us.  It  is  the  educational 
blending  of  the  two  in  one  which  makes  firm  the  faith  of 
Georgetown  in  the  sons  which  she  sends  forth  into  the  world. 
And  those  sons,  as  events  since  the  last  Commencement  have 
shown,  have  been  found  worthy  of  the  highest  places  in  the 
land. 

In  this  twentieth   century  we  have  but  to   look   upon  the 
noble  record  of  the  century  just  closed  in  order  to  take  heart 


350  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

for  the  century  which  lies  before  us.  In  physical  and  indus- 
trial development,  in  inventive  genius  and  in  mechanical  and 
scientific  discovery,  it  has  surpassed  all  previous  epochs.  !• 
deed,  sometimes  we  have  made  so  much  progress  along  purely 
material  lines  that  we  have  lost  sight  of  the  higher  and  nobler 
side  of  things.  Life  cannot  be  wholly  mechanical  or  material. 
Often  our  inventions  and  improvements  have  defeated  their 
very  ends.  In  the  book  entitled  "Is  Mankind  Advancing,"  the 
author   says : 

"Think  of  the  time  saved  by  the  telephone,  the  telegraph, 
the  typewriter,  the  cotton  and  woollen  and  silk  mills,  the  iron 
foundries,  the  sewing  machines,  the  mowing  machines,  the 
reapers  and  harvesters,  the  swift  trains,  the  electric  trolleys, 
the  subways  and  automobiles,  the  escalators  and  elevators! 
What  a  vast  volume  of  time  has  been  saved !  Time  that  used 
to  be  wasted,  now  saved  for  man  and  put  away  where  moth 
doth  not  corrupt  nor  thieves  break  in  and  steal!  There  are 
seons  of  it ;  time  enough  to  double  men's  lives.  Time  enough 
to  give  every  human  being  an  abundance  of  leisure.  An  indus- 
trial revolution,  the  miracles  of  modern  machinery,  millions  of 
brains  are  directed  upon  the  problem ;  all  having  for  their  one 
sole  object — to  save  time! 

"And  what  is  the  result?  The  result  is  that  men  have  less 
time  nowadays  than  they  ever  have  had  since  the  world  be- 
gan. What  becomes  of  all  the  time  thus  saved?  Where  does 
it  go?  Except  in  the  rural  districts  (where  there  is  no  ma- 
chinery for  saving  time,  but  where  alone  there  is  any  to  be 
found)  every  one  is  pressed  for  time. 

"The  leisure  which  we  gain  by  time-saving  machinery  seems 
almost  to  be  tainted.  Like  the  gambler's  winnings,  it  is  seldom 
put  to  any  good  use,  but  is  soon  expended  in  a  hundred  hurried 
follies. 

"A  Western  farmer,  who  enjoyed  a  calm  moment  at  the 
close  of  a  busy  life,  one  day  reflected  upon  his  past  and  dis- 
covered to  his  consternation  that  he  had  spent  his  existence  in 
growing  corn  to  feed  hogs,  in  order  to  buy  more  land  on  which 
to  grow  more  corn  to  raise  more  hogs  on,  and  so  on.  Thus  we 
invent  machinery  for  the  purpose  of  saving  time  in  order  to 
produce  more  things  and  to  get  there  more  quickly,  in  order 
to  save  more  time  to  get  more  things  and  to  get  there  more 
quickly,  and  over  again,  ad  infinitum." 


GEORGETOWN  ADDRESS  35 1 

Is  this  real  progress?  True,  it  is  piling  up  more  material 
things,  making  huge  mathematical  results ;  but  in  the  end  does 
the  individual  man  get  any  more  real  value  out  of  life  than 
his  fathers  did  ?  Does  he,  after  all  his  hurry  and  hustle,  awake 
any  more  of  the  finer  and  nobler  side  of  life — to  say  nothing 
of  the  spiritual  and  moral  side — than  his  predecessor  did? 
Only  so  much  of  our  material  results  as  contribute  to  the 
building  up  of  a  finer  man,  a  better  country,  and  a  more  en- 
lightened civilization,  can  be  said  to  be  any  real  progress  after 
all. 

Yet  in  many  respects  our  progress  has  been  along  the  best 
and  noblest  lines  of  human  endeavor.  We  have  set  among  the 
nations  of  the  earth  a  new  conception  of  the  functions  of  gov- 
ernment. Before  its  time,  legislatures  and  courts  had  been  at 
best  but  docile  servants  of  the  ruler.  Occasionally  legislative 
bodies  had  defied  the  king  who  could  do  no  wrong,  but  they 
both  aHke  had  overawed  and  tyrannized  the  judges  who  were 
to  interpret  the  laws.  We  embarked  upon  a  new  experiment  in 
government.  Thenceforth  the  legislature  was  to  be  independ- 
ent of  the  executive,  whilst  the  courts  were  to  be  independent 
of  both.  Laws  might  be  made,  but  the  maker  might  not  exe- 
cute them;  still  less  was  he  to  have  the  power  of  judging  the 
citizen  under  them.  Each  sphere  of  government  was  re- 
strained within  its  own  boundary,  in  order  that  the  citizen 
might  grow  to  his  full  stature  as  a  man.  Added  to  that,  we 
provided  that  the  State  should  not  enter  upon  the  domain  of 
religion,  but  should  remain  nevertheless  its  protector  and  well- 
wisher.  The  success  of  our  experiment  in  new  and  untried 
government,  as  exemplified  in  our  history,  has  been  a  magnifi- 
cent tribute  to  its  excellence  and  stability.  The  panorama  of 
American  history,  since  the  United  States  came  into  being,  is 
one  of  which  we  can  be  proud,  and  one  which  we  must  pledge 
ourselves  to  continue  in  all  its  excellencies,  whilst  pruning 
away  any  noxious  growths  that  might  seem  to  threaten  it. 

Nor  is  this  the  only  example  of  progress  which  appeals  to  us. 
Consider  for  a  moment  just  what  the  history  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  United  States  has  been  within  the  more  than  a 
century  and  a  quarter  of  its  active  existence. 

Beginning  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  with  a 
handful  of  clergy  and  a  few  thousand  of  laity,  misunderstood, 
possessing  but  the  most  meager  of  civic  rights,  with  no  men  of 


352  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

learning,  wealth  or  position  among  their  members — save  a  great 
name  here  and  there — they  struggled  on  through  difficulty  and 
opposition.  Then  note  the  rise  through  the  nineteenth  century 
to  the  present  time.  In  the  earlier  part  of  the  last  century,  the 
almost  starving  Irish,  untrained  and  unlettered,  came  as  ex- 
ponents of  an  already  depreciated,  if  not  despised,  form  of 
faith  ;  and  cuhured  opponents  pointed  to  them  with  their  peas- 
ant habits  and  general  ignorance  as  the  fruits  which  the  Catho- 
lic Church  brought  forth  in  the  lands  where  her  doctrines 
reigned  supreme.  Then  there  were  no  splendid  temples  here, 
in  which  (3ur  Lord  was  worshipped  on  resplendent  altars,  and 
where  music,  painting  and  sculpture  might  show  forth  to  the 
most  listless  observer  the  culture  which  the  Church  encouraged. 
Even  the  worshippers  themselves  were  far  from  edifying  in 
those  earlier  days,  and  dissensions  broke  out  upon  small  provo- 
cation. It  seemed  to  justify  whatever  our  opponents  could 
invent  to  fling  at  us ;  and  it  was  succeeded  by  a  short-lived  but 
active  persecution. 

Conceive,  if  you  can  nowadays,  an  unlettered,  poverty- 
stricken,  hard-working  minority  persecuted  throughout  these 
Atlantic  States  by  those  who  thought  they  were  doing  their 
country  service  in  suppressing — if  not  actually  oppressing — 
and  adherents  of  the  oldest  Faith  in  the  Christian  world.  Per- 
haps it  only  needed  a  touch  of  persecution  to  bring  the  Catho- 
lic body  closer  together,  and  make  them  more  determined 
to  succeed.  At  any  rate,  they  made  marvelous  progress. 
Churches,  the  peers  of  any  in  Christendom,  have  sprung  up  all 
over  the  land ;  schools,  colleges  and  universities  have  banished 
the  unlettered  ignorance  of  the  people  while  intensifying  their 
faith;  institutions  of  mercy  and  charity  on  every  hand  have 
shown  their  hearts  to  be  as  great  as  any  in  this  broad  land. 
They  have  made  material  and  earthly  progress  equal  to  any  in 
the  world,  but  have  not  forgotten  the  saving  precepts  which 
sanctified  everything  which  they  undertook.  The  magnificent 
statistics  gathered  by  the  Government  but  a  short  time  ago  are 
an  eloquent  testimony  of  that  progress.  To-day  at  least,  this 
great  Universal  Church  of  God  has  put  on  in  this  land  of  free- 
dom the  robes  of  brightness  and  glory  which  belong  to  her  as 
the  Bride  of  Christ  and  the  heir  of  the  ages,  so  as  to  be  known 
and  acknowledged  of  all  men. 

Such  a  glorious  reminiscence  is  but  a  "commencement,"  ex- 


GEORGETOWN  ADDRESS  353 

actly  as  yours  is  to-day.  Here  is  where  our  work  must  begin ; 
here  is  where  we  must  make  strong  the  glorious  beginnings  I 
have  but  recited.  If  the  past  century  in  State,  Church  and  civi- 
lization was  one  of  growth,  one  of  foundation  and  one  of  estab- 
lishment, so  must  the  coming  century  be  one  of  expansion  and 
of  achievement.  If  our  fathers  could  do  so  much  with  such 
slender  materials,  what  ought  we  not  do  with  the  wealth  of 
mental,  educational  and  material  development  which  we  have 
at  hand? 

To-day  all  around  us  we  have  examples  of  the  undue  power 
and  enormous  aggregations  of  wealth,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  threatened  overturn  of  society  and  confiscation  of  the 
sources  of  that  wealth,  on  the  other.  The  gradual  mo- 
nopoly of  the  necessaries  of  life,  of  the  means  of  transporta- 
tion, of  even  the  means  of  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  threatens 
our  national  life  and  liberties.  On  the  other  hand,  a  rising  tide 
of  discontent  against  capital  and  wealth  finds  its  most  outspoken 
advocates  in  socialism  and  threatens  not  only  our  government, 
as  presently  constituted,  but  the  very  principles  of  order  upon 
which  it  is  founded.  In  their  cry  for  economic  and  social  re- 
form, these  advocates  would  go  so  far  as  to  destroy  the  old 
landmarks  of  civilization — religion,  the  family,  and  clean  liv- 
ing. We  cannot  afford  to  yield  either  to  the  pressure  of  the 
one  or  to  the  demands  of  the  other.  If  progress  is  to  be  made, 
it  must  be  made  along  the  lines  of  reconciliation. 

When  we  studied  in  boyhood  our  elementary  catechism,  we 
learned  as  primary  truths  the  commands,  "Thou  shalt  not  steal" 
and  "Thou  shalt  not  covet,"  and  that  among  the  sins  which  cry 
to  heaven  for  vengeance  are  oppression  of  the  poor  and  de- 
frauding laborers  of  their  wage.  On  these  may  be  built  the 
entire  economic  and  political  theory  of  the  modern  State.  All 
the  material  ills  which  cry  for  reform  are  but  a  variation  of 
these  themes,  or  of  the  machinery  by  which  they  are  exploited. 
Those  commands  point  the  direction  in  which  the  cure  must  be 
sought. 

There  are  no  men  in  these  United  States  upon  whom  the 
task  of  making  straight  the  tangled  paths  of  human  progress 
should  rest  more  than  upon  the  college  graduates.  It  is  the 
noblest  aim  they  can  have  in  life.  The  entry  of  large-minded 
college  men,  who  know  their  Faith  and  love  their  country,  into 


354  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

the  task  of  solving  these  difficulties  will  be  one  of  the  greatest 
elements  of  progress  this  age  can  give. 

But  it  can  only  be  done  by  studying  the  examples  of  real 
progress  made  in  the  past  and  by  intently  observing  what  our 
Faith  has  made  essential.  It  demands  clear  thinking  and  clean 
living.  Things  must  be  put  in  their  true  perspective.  If  the 
great  needs  of  life  and  civic  conduct  are  to  be  met,  as  they  will 
be  met,  we,  as  graduates  of  Georgetown,  should  stand  as  a 
necessary  and  important  part  among  those  who  are  to  meet 
them.  In  that  way  we  shall  be  able  to  contribute  our  portion 
to  the  progress  of  the  coming  century. 


THE    PROPOSED    CATHOLIC 
ASSOCIATION 

THIS  is  primarily  an  association  of  Catholic  gentlemen  to 
render  aid  to  the  Church  in  a  field  which  has  hitherto 
been  neglected  in  our  American  life.  We  have  magnifi- 
cent churches,  schools  and  missions,  a  capable  and  energetic 
priesthood  to  promote  Catholic  Faith,  devotion  and  practice 
among  Catholics  themselves,  as  well  as  to  teach  it  to  others 
outside  the  fold.  We  have  charitable  and  educational  insti- 
tutions and  societies  of  every  kind,  with  devoted  and  untiring 
workers,  men  and  women,  lay  and  cleric.  We  have  clubs,  so- 
cieties and  fraternities  devoted  to  Catholic  interests,  enthusi- 
asms and  culture,  and  these  are  steadily  growing  everywhere. 
But  all  of  these  are  for  Catholics  primarily,  and,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  preaching  of  the  faith  and  the  practice  of  char- 
ity, are  not  for  the  world  at  large.  And  the  world  at  large  so 
regards  them;  the  very  matters  they  touch  on,  the  very  aims 
and  objects  they  profess,  are  regarded  as  peculiarly  fitted  for 
the  children  of  the  Church  and  as  such  fail  to  arrest  the  atten- 
tion and  challenge  the  interest  of  others.  And,  in  so  much  as 
we  fail  in  this  regard,  we  fail  to  take  our  proper  place  in  public 
opinion.  It  is  to  correct  this,  to  awaken  a  regard  for  the  Catho- 
lic viewpoint  and  to  arouse  a  healthy,  vigorous  and  inquiring 
public  opinion  upon  things  Catholic  in  the  everyday  world  that 
this  association  has  been  formed. 

We  do  not  intend  to  trench  upon  any  of  the  existing  Catholic 
societies.  We  rather  desire  to  fill  a  place  which  they  have  not 
been  able  to  find  time  and  opportunity  to  occupy.  We  will 
leave  to  the  clergy  and  their  coadjutors  the  teaching  of  faith 
and  doctrine;  we  will  leave  to  the  charitable  societies  the  task 
of  caring  for  the  needy ;  we  will  leave  to  the  club  and  the  kin- 
dred organizations  the  development  of  social  and  intellectual 
interests ;  our  purpose  is  to  assist  them  along  other  and  paral- 
lel lines. 

355 


356  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

So  much  for  the  proposed  association  from  a  negative  stand- 
point. Now  for  an  outline  of  the  positive  work  proposed.  This 
statement  is  not  intended  to  be  a  declaration  of  principles  or 
a  measurement  of  the  boundary  lines  of  our  activities  or  in  any 
wise  limiting  what  we  hope  to  accomplish.  Some  of  the  things 
set  forth  here  may  be  abandoned  later,  on  finding  that  they  are 
accomplished  better  through  other  channels  and  other  activities. 
Other  things  not  even  hinted  at  or  even  contemplated  now  may 
i'ereafter  be  taken  up  by  us,  if  deemed  expedient  or  necessary. 
Still  larger  activities  may  be  presented  to  us  in  the  future  which 
cannot  now  be  even  foreseen  or  imagined.  Therefore  what  is 
stated  here  may  be  regarded  as  only  in  a  measure  the  duties 
and  activities  of  the  proposed  Catholic  Association. 

A  word  or  so  of  the  origin  or  immediate  starting  point  of 
this  proposed  association  may  not  be  out  of  place.  Last  year 
the  so-called  Law  of  Separation  of  Church  and  State  was  put 
in  operation  in  France.  Its  terms  were  so  completely  subver- 
sive of  the  constitution  of  the  Church,  so  bent  on  making  the 
Church  in  France  little  less  than  a  civil  corporation  under  the 
administration  of  the  State,  that  the  bishops,  clergy  and  Catho- 
lic people  of  France  could  not  and  would  not  submit  to  its 
drastic  provisions,  and  preferred  to  lose  their  property  rather 
than  surrender  their  liberty  of  worship.  The  American  press, 
and,  in  fact,  the  majority  of  American  publicists,  apparently 
conceiving  that  separation  in  France  meant  what  separation  in 
America  means,  took  up  the  side  of  the  French  government, 
and  in  the  press  and  on  the  rostrum  poured  forth  statements 
and  arguments  to  the  effect  that  the  Church,  its  priests  and 
people  were  in  the  wrong,  and  should  be  considered  as  engaged 
in  a  movement  little  less  than  treasonable  to  the  French  Repub- 
lic. This  was  reiterated  from  day  to  day  and  largely  influenced 
public  opinion  in  America.  These  statements,  however,  were 
not  permitted  to  go  unchallenged.  A  committee  was  organized, 
on  the  initiative  of  the  Archbishop,  by  which  preparation  was 
made  for  a  great  popular  meeting,  in  which  a  fair-minded  re- 
view of  the  events  in  France  was  presented  and  a  statement 
of  the  attitude  and  aims  of  the  churchmen  of  France  was  set 
forth,  while  the  animus  and  acts  of  the  French  government 
were  contrasted  with  the  real  freedom  guaranteed  by  our  con- 
stitution in  this  free  land.  The  success  of  that  great  meeting 
was  almost  instantaneous  in  changing  American  public  opinion. 


THE  PROPOSED  CATHOLIC  ASSOCIATION     357 

The  American  public  saw  that  there  was  another  side  to  the 
story ;  that  the  facts  and  figures  they  had  received  needed  essen- 
tial additions,  corrections  and  alterations,  and  that  some  were 
misstated  altogether;  many  of  the  best-equipped  American 
writers  warmly  espoused  the  Catholic  view,  and  even  those  who 
were  strongly  biased  moderated  in  a  marked  degree  their  ad- 
verse opinions. 

It  was  in  preparing  for  this  meeting,  in  searching  out  and 
obtaining  the  data  and  necessary  information  for  the  subjects 
dwelt  upon,  in  disseminating  the  news  of  the  meeting  and  the 
results  accomplished  by  it,  that  the  need  of  such  an  organiza- 
tion as  the  present  proposed  association  was  most  strongly  felt. 
In  other  words,  we  realized  the  need  of  some  sort  of  a  well- 
equipped  and  permanent  society,  which  might  present  to  our 
fellow-Americans  the  true  facts  and  history  of  any  movement, 
past  or  present,  with  which  the  Church  is  or  has  been  identified. 
The  Church  and  her  doctrines  have  their  defenders,  able  and 
conscientious  men,  everywhere,  but  the  great  American  public 
outside  of  the  Church  is  either  biased  or  indififerent  to  what 
manner  of  constitution  or  teaching  she  may  have,  and  seldom 
awakens  to  it  except  when  some  sudden  occasion  arises.  If 
then  a  statement  in  favor  of  the  Church  or  her  activities  comes 
from  a  professedly  Catholic  source  it  is  taken  as  special  plead- 
ing, and  therefore  loses  much  of  its  force.  Oftentimes  a  posi- 
tive misstatement  of  the  truth  and  the  facts  involved  is  the 
only  notice  the  average  American  receives  of  Catholic  events, 
and  the  matter  has  passed  from  his  mind  before  the  truth  has 
been  ascertained  and  the  proper  statement  presented.  Yet  the 
American  public,  used  as  it  is  to  political  and  business  discus- 
sions, will  recognize  the  value  and  correctness  of  a  statement, 
if  it  is  placed  purely  and  simply  upon  a  basis  of  justice  and 
fair  play.  While  it  might  be  indififerent  to  a  special  plea,  pro- 
fessedly Catholic,  and  therefore  fail  unintentionally  to  do  jus- 
tice, it  will  respond  to  an  appeal  or  a  statement  made  upon  the 
sole  ground  that  it  contains  the  actual  facts  involved,  irrespec- 
tive of  whether  the  statement  itself  is  in  favor  of  the  Catholic 
view  or  not.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  primary  standpoint  of 
the  article  or  statement  which  arrests  the  attention  of  the  pub- 
lic. If  it  professes  to  be  something  Catholic  and  to  be  written 
because  it  is  Catholic,  the  probability  is  that  it  will  be  ignored ; 
but  if  it  profess  to  contain  the  facts  of  the  case  and  to  give  the 


358  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

original  sources  or  the  exact  points  involved  merely  for  the 
sake  of  enhghtenment  or  for  the  correction  of  misinformation, 
it  will  produce  an  impression  far  greater  and  lasting  and  will 
be  welcomed  by  all  who  desire  to  hear  all  sides  of  a  question. 
It  is  therefore  to  meet  this  want,  and  other  kindred  wants,  that 
we  believe  a  society  such  as  we  contemplate  to  be  necessary. 

A  healthy,  appreciative  public  opinion  cannot  be  formed  in  a 
moment.  Assuming,  for  instance,  that  we  succeeded  in  remov- 
ing many  false  impressions  about  the  struggle  in  France  and 
corrected  much  erroneous  information,  it  does  not  mean  that 
we  shall  not  have  to  do  the  work  over  again  to-morrow  or  the 
next  day,  when  a  new  batch  of  news  comes  over  the  cables,  or  a 
fresh  crisis  arrives.  In  the  English  tradition  and  literature, 
which  we  in  America  inherit,  bias  and  prejudice  against  Catho- 
lic principles  and  Catholic  history  have  been  so  interwoven  that 
a  distrust  or  tendency  to  hasty  and  adverse  judgment  on  things 
Catholic  exists  in  nearly  every  man  who  has  not  either  taken 
the  pains  or  had  the  leisure  to  inform  himself  about  them. 
Sometimes  malevolence  makes  such  adverse  judgment  worse. 
It  becomes,  therefore,  our  duty  when  the  occasion  arises,  to 
lay  before  our  fellow-citizens  in  America  such  an  array  of  facts, 
information  and  correct  deductions  concerning  the  current  civil 
and  temporal  relations  of  the  Church  with  the  nations  and  peo- 
ples of  the  earth,  and  particularly  in  our  own  country,  in  a 
temperate  and  dispassionate  manner,  so  that  our  fellow-Ameri- 
cans, even  if  they  do  not  wholly  agree  with  us,  may  nevertheless 
obtain  and  disseminate  correct  news  of  any  event  or  question 
involving  the  Church.  The  American  public  should  be  as  well 
informed  upon  questions  touching  the  Catholic  Church  and  her 
duly  constituted  authorities,  as  upon  the  tariff,  the  railroad,  the 
currency,  or  the  foreign  policy  of  the  United  States,  or  upon 
the  science,  literature  and  art  of  the  day.  And  it  should  be  our 
duty  to  supply  such  information  in  an  appropriate  manner, 
giving  a  dignified  statement  of  the  facts  and  principles  involved 
in  the  particular  case  under  consideration. 

How  this  may  best  be  accomplished  and  what  particular  form 
it  shall  take,  is  one  of  the  problems  confronting  us.  What  we 
consider  here  are  the  most  obvious  wants  at  this  particular  time 
and  the  means  we  shall  have  to  use  in  order  to  supply  them.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  a  fair  amount  of  money  will  be  re- 
quired to  put  the  association  upon  its  feet  and  to  make  it  really 


THE  PROPOSED  CATHOLIC  ASSOCIATION     359 

practical.  The  ground  to  be  covered  is  so  vast  and  the  need  of 
exact  information  so  far  reaching  in  many  fields,  that  the  ex- 
pense will  be  not  inconsiderable.  But,  assuming  that  the  in- 
terest taken  in  the  movement  is  sufficient  to  assure  the  income 
needed,  the  present  field  of  the  association  can  be  briefly 
sketched. 

In  order  to  collect  accurate  information  regarding  the  pres- 
ent status  of  the  Church  in  European  countries,  correspondents 
must  be  stationed  at,  say,  London,  Paris,  Madrid,  Vienna,  Ber- 
lin, and  above  all,  at  Rome.  Foreign  newspapers  must  be  taken 
from  nearly  every  large  European  city,  at  all  events  from  every 
capital  and  centre  of  Catholic  interest.  Facts  and  exact  state- 
ments concerning  the  relations  of  Catholic  societies,  clergy, 
schools,  teaching,  etc.,  must  be  ascertained  and  preserved. 
Every  effort  must  be  made  to  keep  up  with  the  political  and 
social  movements  throughout  the  world,  and  a  sufficient  library 
bearing  on  these  subjects  must  be  established.  A  clipping  bu- 
reau and  telegraphic  service  will  be  required  to  facilitate  mat- 
ters. The  net  results  of  such  researches  and  investigations 
must  be  conveyed  to  the  American  press  by  news  items,  con- 
tributed articles,  direct  corrections  of  erroneous  statements, 
and  by  public  addresses,  or,  where  necessary,  by  authoritative 
statements,  so  that  the  general  public  may  be  kept  correctly  in- 
formed of  the  progress,  attitude  and  doings  of  the  Catholic 
Church  abroad  and  at  home,  and  not  have  to  rely  on  ill-digested 
and  sometimes  malevolent  scraps  of  news  such  as  now  appear 
in  the  papers.  Matters  of  interest  to  the  Church  should  be  fol- 
lowed up  to  their  conclusion,  so  that  the  public  may  be  made 
aware  of  the  outcome.  For  instance,  we  were  informed  re- 
cently about  Queen  Margherita  of  Italy  obtaining  land  in  Rome 
for  the  monks  by  taking  it  away  from  the  soldiers,  but  we  are 
not  told  where  the  land  was,  under  what  circumstances  it  was 
taken,  whether  it  originally  belonged  to  the  monks,  or  any  of 
the  essential  events  connected  therewith,  except  just  sufficient 
to  put  the  Church  in  the  role  of  a  usurper.  Another  instance 
were  the  editorials  in  the  "Evening  Post"  recently,  as  to  the  al- 
leged hostility  between  the  regular  and  secular  clergy  in  France. 
With  an  equipped  organization  we  could  correct  or  explain 
those  matters  in  time  for  the  next  issue  of  the  paper.  As  it  is, 
we  shall  have  to  await  the  tardy  arrival  of  letters  or  news- 
papers from  abroad. 


36o  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

Canards  of  all  kinds  in  regard  to  the  Church  and  her  clergy 
and  members  in  all  parts  of  the  world  are  freely  reported  in 
the  press.  These  could  be  instantly  corrected  through  such  an 
organization.  Grave  calumnies  affecting  important  persons  can 
be  refuted  by  it.  Statements  of  fact  inaccessible  to  ordinary 
readers  because  of  their  un familiarity  with  foreign  tongues 
and  their  remoteness  from  the  scene  can  be  readily  obtained 
through  this  association.  Inquiries  for  specified  purposes  and 
for  special  information  on  particular  subjects  can  likewise  be 
pursued  through  its  officials  and  members.  Any  one  here  in 
New  York  with  limited  means  of  information  can  thus  set  in 
motion  the  machinery  to  obtain  exact  knowledge  upon  any  one 
of  the  subjects  of  the  day  touching  the  relations  of  the  Church 
and  churchmen  to  civil  affairs. 

The  same  method  can  be  employed  relative  to  matters  ex- 
clusively confined  to  this  country.  The  association  could  main- 
tain correspondents  at  every  important  centre  in  the  United 
States,  and  obtain  and  preserve  current  reports  upon  all  mat- 
ters affecting  the  interests  of  the  Church.  Such  matters  as 
legislation  and  the  trend  of  public  thought  affecting  the  rights 
of  the  Church  in  the  family,  the  child,  the  school,  secular  prop- 
erty, the  Indians,  the  poor  and  afflicted,  charitable  institutions, 
the  welfare  of  Catholics  in  the  army,  the  navy  and  the  general 
government  service,  can  be  fully  investigated  and  the  results 
tabulated  and  preserved.  The  relations  of  the  government 
with,  as  well  as  the  internal  relations  of,  our  annexed  depend- 
encies, like  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippines,  Panama;  the  rights, 
freedom  and  exercise  of  the  teachings  and  worship  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  its  growth  and  progress  in  these  coun- 
tries, can  be  fully  obtained  and  recorded,  as  well  as  all  ques- 
tions affecting  Catholic  interests  in  the  United  States.  Data 
and  facts  thus  obtained  may  be  published  from  time  to  time  in 
the  public  prints,  or  made  the  subjects  of  the  lecture  platform, 
the  pulpit  and  the  public  meeting,  as  the  case  may  require,  or 
brought  to  the  attention  of  the  public  in  other  convenient  ways. 

The  American  press  is  eager  to  get  news.  Why  not  utilize 
this  great  instrument  of  publicity  to  disseminate  Catholic  news, 
based  upon  ascertained  and  authentic  facts,  and  demonstrate 
to  the  world  that  Catholics  are  bending  their  energies  for  the 
welfare  of  their  country  and  seeking  to  establish  the  Kingdom 
of  God  on  earth  ?    We  need  not  insist  that  this  is  the  work  of 


THE  PROPOSED  CATHOLIC  ASSOCIATION     361 

the  Church,  as  such,  but  is  the  record  of  the  activities  of  indi- 
vidual citizens,  or  of  a  body  of  citizens,  vying  with  their  fel- 
low-men to  better  the  world  and  lead  it  into  paths  of  truth, 
honesty  and  uprightness. 

When  the  need  for  public  action  arises,  this  association  may 
then  take  even  more  energetic  measures.  When  the  need 
arises,  it  can  awaken  public  sentiment,  arrange  for  public  meet- 
ings and  gatherings,  and  present  the  proper  views  to  the  public 
in  general,  or  to  officials,  courts  or  legislatures,  as  the  case  may 
require.  In  truth,  there  is  no  limit  to  its  activities  and  it  may 
enlist  the  cooperation  of  the  brightest  and  most  active  minds  in 
its  work  of  enlightening  public  opinion  as  to  the  merits  of 
Catholic  views  and  Catholic  rights  in  a  given  case.  The  suc- 
cessful activities  of  such  an  association  in  informing  a  fair- 
minded  pubHc  of  the  acts,  teachings,  principles  and  aims  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  civil  and  temporal  affairs,  may  prepare  the 
way  for  that  long-wished-for  Catholic  daily  newspaper.  This 
latter,  however,  is  surely  an  inspiration  for  the  future,  and  not 
an  immediately  practical  aim  of  the  association,  as  we  are  out- 
lining its  possible  activities. 

We  are  not  aware  probably  of  the  wealth  of  material  at  our 
command  to  illustrate  the  progress,  dignity  and  defense  of  the 
Church.  An  organization  such  as  we  contemplate  would  bring 
it  out.  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  surprised  and  delighted 
everybody  by  its  showing  of  American  scholars,  both  clerics 
and  laymen,  who  were  versed  in  the  history,  doctrine  and  de- 
velopment of  the  Church.  The  same  thing  would  without 
doubt  be  experienced  here.  We  do  not  realize  the  powers  for 
good  which  we  can  command,  or  how  wide  would  be  the  in- 
fluence of  such  a  movement.  The  Church  has  no  longer  any 
need  to  apologize  for  its  existence  and  policy  in  the  United 
States :  it  can  now  insist  that  it  become  as  well  known  in  all  its 
civil  relations  as  the  Panama  Canal  or  the  Railroad  Question, 
quite  irrespective  of  its  dogmatic  teachings  or  its  ecclesiastical 
organization,  and  a  succession  of  daily,  weekly  and  monthly 
itemized  truths,  as  well  as  lengthier  statements  concerning  its 
temporal  relations,  will  contribute  to  place  it  before  the  Ameri- 
can public  without  prejudice  or  bias. 

The  average  American  will  entertain  a  finer  and  heartier 
respect  for  the  Church  and  her  institutions  the  more  he  knows 
of.  them,  and  the  less  likely  will  he  be  to  assail  or  injure  them. 


362  ANDREW  J.  SHIPMAN  MEMORIAL 

It  may  not,  and  probably  will  not,  make  him  a  Catholic  or 
give  him  a  desire  to  enter  the  Church.  But  whatever  abates 
prejudice,  whatever  increases  appreciation,  and  whatever 
makes  the  CathoHc,  his  creed  and  his  manner  of  life  and  thought 
better  known  and  more  highly  valued  by  his  fellow-Americans, 
should  be  welcomed  and  encouraged.  For  this  we  commend  the 
proposed  organization,  the  CathoHc  Association,  and  bespeak 
for  it  the  approval  and  support  of  all  who  have  the  interests  of 
the  Church  at  heart. 


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